Appalachia
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- This article is about the modern area called Appalachia. For the Mesozoic island, see Appalachia (Mesozoic). For the town of the same name, see Appalachia, Virginia.
Appalachia is a term used to describe a region in the eastern United States that stretches from southern New York state to northern Mississippi. Surrounding the Appalachian Mountains, it includes rural, urban, and industrialized regions. Although parts of the Appalachian Mountains extend through Maine into Canada, New England is usually excluded from the definition of Appalachia.
Over twenty million people live in Appalachia, an area roughly the size of the United Kingdom, covering mostly mountainous, often isolated areas from the border of Mississippi and Alabama in the south to Pennsylvania and New York in the north. Appalachia also includes parts of the states of Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, Maryland, and the entire state of West Virginia.
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[edit] Culture
- See also: Appalachian folk music, Country music, and Appalachian English
Prior to the 20th century, the people of Appalachia were geographically isolated from the rest of the country. As a result, they preserved the culture of their ancestors (most of them Scottish, Scotch-Irish, Irish and English) who settled the region in the 18th century. The region's culture includes a strong oral tradition (including music and song), self-sufficiency, and strong religious faith. Coal deposits in the region were tapped in the latter half of the 19th century and drew a new wave of immigrants from Ireland and Central Europe. With this industrialization came increased urbanization.
The creation in 1936 of the Appalachian Trail, which stretches from Georgia to Maine, also helped open the area to hikers and outdoor enthusiasts from all over the world.
Long characterized as economically underdeveloped, Appalachia has received more sympathetic treatment by historians and anthropologists in recent decades. Groups like the Foxfire project, an anthology of writings that began in 1972, appealed to the counterculture and gave the region new visibility in academia.
Though the region is often characterized as educationally deficient, the inhabitants of the region have preserved much historical lore. For example, Appalachian people have preserved a lot of historical medical knowledge. People in the community know where to find, identify, harvest, and prepare various herbs that are medicinally used. Ancient arts, such as beelining, would be more likely to be familiar to an Appalachian person than one from other areas.
A long-running series of documentary films by Appalshop takes a historical and critical view of the region, especially the effects of coal mining, poverty, and other aspects of local life.
In 1965, the US Congress established an economic development agency called the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC). In the terminology of this agency, "Appalachia" applies to the whole territory of its mandate, in recognition of similarities of lifestyle and culture throughout the region. This similarity may come from the great migration of people from the northern to the southern part of Appalachia in the 19th century.
In the 20th century, many from the area migrated to northern,& midwestern cities such as Detroit, and Chicago in search of jobs, and these cities still contain enclaves of Appalachian culture.
In the 1940s through the 60s, Wheeling, West Virginia became a cultural center of the region because it had a clear channel AM radio station WWVA, which could be heard throughout the entirety of eastern USA at night.
As a scientific technical term, "Appalachia" may be used to describe some (particularly the central section), or all, of the Appalachian mountain range, for example as a geological formation, or an environmental habitat.
Appalachia as an academic interest was the product of a critical scholarship that emerged across the disciplines in the 1960s and 1970s. With a renewed interest in issues of power, scholars could not dismiss the social inequity, class conflict, and environmental destruction present in Appalachia. Appalachia's emergence in academia is a result of the intersection between social conditions and critical academic interests. This 'visibility', often taking shape in books and lectures, broadcast the struggles of Appalachia to a broader audience.
[edit] Appalachian Regional Commission
The Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC) was created by the U.S. Congress in 1965 to bring poor areas of the 13 U.S. states of the main (southern) range of the Appalachians into the mainstream of the American economy. The commission is a partnership of federal, state, and local governments, and was created to promote economic growth and improve the quality of life in the region. The region as defined by the ARC includes roughly 408 counties, including all of West Virginia and counties in 13 other states: Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. The ARC is a planning, research, advocacy and funding organization; it does not have any governing powers.
The ARC's geographic range of coverage was defined broadly so as to cover as many economically underdeveloped areas as possible; it extends well beyond the area usually thought of as "Appalachia". For instance, parts of Alabama and Mississippi were included in the commission because of problems with unemployment and poverty similar to those in Appalachia proper, and the ARC region extends into Northeastern states, which are never considered part of Appalachia culturally. The ARC's wide scope also grew out of the "pork barrel" phenomenon, as politicians from outside the traditional Appalachia area saw a new way to bring home federal money to their areas.
[edit] Economy
The economy of Appalachia traditionally rested on agriculture, mining, timber, and in the cities, manufacturing. In the late twentieth century, tourism and second home developments have assumed an increasingly major role.
Coal mining, the industry most frequently associated with Appalachia in outsiders' minds, remains important, however its economic role should not be overstated. Coal is mined only in some portions of the area traditionally thought of as Appalachia [1] [2]. Coal mining employment across the country has generally dropped over the last several decades with increased mechanization, notwithstanding a spike in employment accompanying the coal industry boomlet that started in about 2004 [3]. While with annual earnings of $55,000, Appalachian miners make more than most other local workers, Appalachian coal mining employed just under 50,000 in 2004. [4], [5] Restrictions on high sulfur coal in the 1980s resulted in the closure of some mines. The high, continuing "legacy" costs associated with earlier mining activities — retiree health care, environmental reclamation, and black lung disease compensation — impact Appalachian coal economics. The region still has very large coal reserves [6], however the least expensive, most accessible, thickest seams have largely been mined out, complicating the area's ability to compete with very low cost Colombian, Western U.S. and especially Powder River Basin strip mines. About two-thirds of Appalachia's coal is produced by underground mining, the rest by surface mining. [7], often referred to as strip mining. Mountaintop removal, a form of surface mining, is a highly controversial mining practice in central Appalachia due to its negative impacts on the natural and human environment.
[edit] Etymology
The name is a back-formation of "Appalachian," created to provide a political designation for the territory in and around the mountain chain. The word "Appalachian" comes from the Apalachee tribe, historically located in northern Florida. After the de Soto expedition Spanish cartographers began to apply the name of the tribe to the mountains themselves. The name was not commonly used for the whole mountain range until the late 19th century. A competing and often more popular name was the "Allegheny Mountains", "Alleghenies", and even "Alleghania". In the early 19th century, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania (Stewart 1967:173).
In northern U.S. dialects, the mountains are pronounced the [æ.pəˈleɪ.tʃənz], or [æ.pəˈleɪ.ʃənz]. The cultural region of the mountain South is pronounced [æ.pəˈleɪ.ʃ(i)ə], also [æ.pəˈleɪ.tʃ(i)e]. The third syllable is like "lay".
In Southern U.S. dialects, the mountains are pronounced the [æ.pəˈlæ.tʃənz], and the cultural region of the mountain South is pronounced [æ.pəˈlæ.tʃ(i)ə]. The third syllable is like the "la" in "latch".
[edit] Popular culture
- The motion pictures Coal Miner's Daughter (based on the life of noted Country singer Loretta Lynn), Where the Lilies Bloom and Songcatcher attempt an accurate portrayal of life in Appalachia.
- The Waltons, a long-running family TV serial, based on Earl Hamner's youth, was set in the mountains of Virginia.
- The Appalachian town of Big Stone Gap has been the setting of several best-selling novels, including The Trail of the Lonesome Pine by John Fox, Jr. and the Big Stone Gap series by Adriana Trigiani.
- Stranger with a Camera[8] is a documentary film about the representation of Appalachian communities by outsiders in film and video.
- Country Boys is a documentary film by David Sutherland showing three years in the lives of two teenagers growing up in eastern Kentucky.
- Homer Hickam's book Rocket Boys and its movie adaptation October Sky are slightly fictionalized versions of his childhood and teenage years in Coalwood Southern West Virginia.
- The 1987 film Matewan fictionalizes a clash between West Virginia coal miners, supported by union organizers, and coal companies in the 1920s. Scenes depicting the town were actually shot in Thurmond, West Virginia.
- The 1632 series, an alternate history book series created by Eric Flint, features the fictional town of Grantville, West Virginia transported to Germany in the time of the Thirty Year's War.
- Composer Aaron Copland composed music for a ballet called Appalachian Spring
- Composer Frederick Delius wrote a tone poem entitled Appalachia
- Kopple, Barbara (Director). Harlan County, USA [documentary film]. Harlan County, Kentucky: Cabin Creek Productions.
- Author Catherine Marshall wrote Christy, loosely based on her mother's years as a teacher in the Appalachian region.
- In the popular arcade racing game Cruis'n USA, Appalachia appears as one of the courses.
[edit] Transportation
Appalachia's geography presents special challenges to transportation. In Europe, while mountain ranges presented challenges to transport, they could mostly be avoided. In North America, however, the Appalachian Mountains presented a barrier that could not be easily out-flanked. Intially, European settlers found gaps in the mountains; among them the Cumberland Gap and the Wilderness Road.
[edit] Early Roads
Native American trails were what first penetrated Appalachia. One of the earliest used by Europeans was Nemacolin's path, Native American trail between the Potomac and the Monongahela river, going from the site of Cumberland, Maryland, to the mouth of Redstone Creek, where Brownsville, Pennsylvania is situated.
The French and Indian War created a need for roads through Appalachia. In 1755, General Edward Braddock of the Coldstream Guards was sent to rout the French from Fort Duquesne along the Nemacolin's path. From Fort Cumberland, Braddock's army cut a military trail through the wilderness this would become known as Braddock's Road. Another was a British military trail built in 1758 by General John Forbes of England from Chambersburg to Pittsburgh during the French and Indian War, later known as the Pittsburgh Road and the Conestoga Road.
The first modern road to be built through Appalachia was the National Road starting at Cumberland, MD an early hub of Appalachia generally following Braddock's Roadheading west first to Wheeling, VA. Other roads soon followed such as the Northwestern Turnpike and James River and Kanawha Turnpike.
[edit] Water
By 1772, George Washington had identified the Potomac and James rivers as the most promising locations for canals to be built to join with the western rivers. Washington proposed a canal to connect the Potomac River and the Ohio River and founded the Potowmack Company. In 1824, the holdings of the Potowmac Company were ceded to the Chesapeake and Ohio Company. Construction began with a groundbreaking ceremony on July 4, 1828 by President John Quincy Adams. It followed the course of the Potomac River to Cumberland, MD. Had it been completed it would have continued west from Cumberland along the Potomac River and then followed the Savage River crossing the eastern continental divide near present day Deep Creek Lake, and eventually following the Youghiogheny River to navigable waters.
The James River and Kanawha Canal was a project first proposed by Washington when he was a young man surveying the mountains of western Virginia. In 1785, the James River Company was formed, with George Washington as honorary president, to build locks around the falls at Richmond. By then, Washington was quite busy with the affairs of the new nation which would elect him as its first president in 1789. The goal was to reach the Kanawha River at its head of navigation about 30 miles east of today's Charleston, West Virginia. The canal eventually extended 196.5 miles west of Richmond, Virginia, to Buchanan, Virginia. By 1851 westward progress had stopped due to increasing competition from the railroads.
Even today river systems provide transport through barge traffic on the Ohio River system. The Monongahela River is navigable its entire length, deep into the interior of West Virginia, with a series of lock/dams ensuring a 9' depth.
[edit] Rail
The next major transportation leap for Appalachia was the Rail Road. The Baltimore and Ohio was the first to cross. It has finished to Piedmont, VA July 21, 1851, Fairmont, VA June 22, 1852, and its terminus at Wheeling, VA on January 1, 1853.
In 1855 the Norfolk and Western Railway, under the direction of Frederick J. Kimball, began to push across Appalachia. Starting from Big Dick the lines extended to the Pocahontas coalfields in western Virginia and West Virginia and on north to Columbus, Ohio and Cincinnati, Ohio.
Southern Railway linked Charleston, South Carolina and Memphis, Tennessee, crossing Appalachia in 1857 in the Ashville, North Carolina area, although rail expansion halted with the start of the Civil War.
By 1867 the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway had reached the eastern edge of the mountains and was also reaching for the Ohio valley via the New River and Kanawha Valleys of West Virginia. The West Virginia stretch of the C & O was the site of the legendary competition between John Henry and a steam-powered machine; the competition is said to have taken place in a tunnel south of Talcott, West Virginia near the Greenbrier River. In 1888, the C&O built the Cincinnati Division, from Huntington, West Virginia down the south bank of the Ohio River in Kentucky and across the river at Cincinnati, connecting with the "Big Four" and other Midwestern Railroads.
Henry G. Davis started the West Virginia Central and Pittsburgh Railway in 1880 in the ensuing years it opened a huge swathe of timber and coal territory in northern West Virginia to use. It started in Piedmont, WV and pushed west creating such towns as Elkins, Davis and Thomas. It pushed east to Cumberland, Maryland where it connected with traffic from the C&0 Canal and National Road. West from Elkins, West Virginia Davis created the Coal & Coke Railway to Charleston completing another crossing. These eventually formed the core of the Western Maryland Railway. The Western Maryland's Connellsville Extension was built west from Cumberland, Maryland, to Connellsville, Pennsylvania, beginning around 1906 and was completed in 1912.
Today the crossing of the Eastern Continental Divide by the West Virginia Central and Pittsburg Railway is now abandon and is used as a Rails to Trails area. The other crossings are either part of CSX or Norfolk Southern Railway and remain the only rail crossings of Appalachia. Cumberland, Maryland still serves as a major rail hub for Appalachia where two main lines head west.
[edit] Highways
In 1880 the Good Roads Movement was formed. They knew outside of cities, roads were dirt or gravel, mud in the winter and dust in the summer. In its early years, the main goal of the movement was education for road building in rural areas between cities, such as Appalachia, to help rural populations gain the social and economic benefits enjoyed by cities where citizens benefitted from railroads, trolleys and paved streets. This eventually led to the National auto trail system of highways. The first crossing Appalachia was the Lincoln Highway which would later become US 30. This was closely followed by the Dixie Highway first planned in 1914, to connect the US Midwest with the US South crossing Appalachia following what is now US 25. Other National auto trail's crossing Appalachia include Jefferson Davis Highway, Lakes-to-Sea Highway, Lee Highway, and National Old Trails Highway,
The next great leap in transportation was the passing of Federal Aid Highway Act of 1925 which created he modern numbered highway system, replacing the National auto trail system. The longest primary US highway contained in Appalachia is US 11 traversing the eastern side. US 21 was another primary US highway, but much of its route has been decommissioned and replaced with Interstate 77, these make/made up the North-South routes. East-West Routes include US 30, US 33, US 40, US 50, US 60, and US 70. Many spur routes such as US 220 and US 119 service various parts of Appalachia.
The Pennsylvania Turnpike was the first long-distance rural controlled access highway in the United States and also the first one to cross Appalachia. It was known as the "tunnel highway" because of the seven mountain tunnels along its Appalachian route. In October 1, 1940 the first section of Turnpike opened, running from US 11 near Carlisle (southwest of Harrisburg) west to US 30 at Irwin (east of Pittsburgh). Crossing was completed with the Western Extension, from Irwin to US 22 east of Pittsburgh, opened August 7, 1951. The remainder opened to traffic on December 26, 1951, taking the highway west almost to the Ohio state line.
The Turnpike remained the only superhighway crossing Appalachia until the interstate system that was authorized by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956. Today 7 Interstates cross Appalachia east to west starting with Interstate 86, Interstate 80, Interstate 70, Interstate 64, Interstate 26, and Interstate 40. There are 3 interstates crossing North to South. These include Interstate 75, Interstate 77 and Interstate 81.
Appalachia was still not well serviced by the US Highway System and Interstate Highway System. This lead to the AHDS. Since good roads are essential to economic growth the Appalachian governors placed top priority on a modern highway system as the key to economic development. The result, in 1965 the Appalachian Regional Commission created the Appalachian Development Highway System which was the first highway system designed specifically to service Appalachia. The ADHS was designed to generate economic development in previously isolated areas, supplement the interstate system, connect Appalachia to the interstate system, and provide access to areas within the Region as well as to markets in the rest of the nation. The ADHS is currently authorized at 3,090 miles, including 65 miles added in January 2004.
These routes are known as corridors. They are build to a higher standard than US Highways, but less than Interstate standard, although some such as Corridor E were built to be interstates. May 17, 2006 an new ADHS Super-2 specification was proposed by the US 50 Association to the Appalachian Regional Commission through congressional representatives.
[edit] Other Appalachia-related articles
The six physiographic provinces of Appalachia:
See also:
[edit] References
- Stewart, George R. (1967) Names on the Land. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
[edit] Further reading
- (2006) Encyclopedia of Appalachia. University of Tennessee Press.
- Kephart, Horace (1922). Our Southern Highlanders, New and revised edition, Macmillan. ISBN 0-87049-203-9.
- Caudill, Harry M. (1962). Night Comes to the Cumberlands. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-13212-8.
- Sarnoff, Susan (2003). "Central Appalachia – Still the Other America". Journal of Poverty Volume 7 (1 & 2): 123 - 139.
[edit] External links
- Appalachia at the Open Directory Project (suggest site)
- "Appalachia: Hollow Promises", a comprehensive 1999 series of articles on the region and the ARC published in the Columbus Dispatch
- Appalachian Center for Economy and the Environment
- Digital Library of Appalachia
- Morehead State University Center for Virtual Appalachia
