Child abuse

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Child abuse is the physical or psychological maltreatment of a child, often synonymous with the term child maltreatment or the term child abuse and neglect. Some definitions also include the abuse of children by other children or by themselves. However, in the United States, abuse of a child by another child is not reportable as child abuse, except to the extent that it can be reported as improper supervision by the abused child's parents. While most child abuse happens in the child's home, large numbers of cases of child abuse have been identified within some organizations involving children, such as churches, schools, child care businesses, and in particular native residential schools^[1], or in government agencies^[2].

According to a recent UNICEF report on child well-being [2] the United States and the United Kingdom ranked lowest among rich nations with respect to the well being of their children. This study also found that child neglect and child abuse are far more common in single-parent families than in families where both parents are present.

There are many forms of abuse and neglect and many governments have developed their own legal definition of what constitutes child maltreatment for the purposes of removing a child and/or prosecuting a criminal charge. In the United States, the Federal Government puts out a full definition of child abuse and neglect and creates a summary of each State definition. To view, go to Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect: Summary of State Laws [3] that is part of the 2005 State Statute series by the Child Welfare Information Gateway.

1 Effects of child abuse on the child and development
2 Causes of child abuse
3 Prevention
4 Treatment
5 Child abuse prevention organizations
- 5.1 Childhelp USA
- 5.2 ISPCAN (International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect)
6 Reporting of child abuse
7 Notable incidents of child abuse
8 See also
9 References
10 External links

[edit] Effects of child abuse on the child and development

The U.S. National Adoption Center found that 52% of adoptable children (meaning those children in U.S. foster care) freed for adoption had symptoms of attachment disorder. A study by Dante Cicchetti found that 80% of abused and maltreated infants exhibited attachment disorder symptoms (disorganized subtype). ^[3] ^[4]

Children with histories of maltreatment, such as physical and psychological neglect and physical abuse are at risk of developing severe psychiatric problems. ^[5] ^[6] These children are likely to develop reactive attachment disorder. ^[7] ^[8] These children may be described as experiencing trauma-attachment problems. The trauma experienced is the result of abuse or neglect, inflicted by a primary caregiver, which disrupts the normal development of secure attachment. Such children are at risk of developing a disorganized attachment. ^[7] ^[9] ^[10] Disorganized attachment is associated with a number of developmental problems, including dissociative symptoms, ^[11] as well as anxiety,depressive, and acting-out symptoms. ^[12] ^[13]

[edit] Causes of child abuse

Parental choices and other unforeseen circumstances that place families under extraordinary stress ―for instance, poverty, divorce, sickness, disability, lack of parental skills is often associated to child maltreatment. Many of these factors may contribute to family stress that can result in child abuse or neglect. Understanding the root causes of abuse can help better determine the best methods of prevention and treatment.

[edit] Prevention

Given these possible causes, most professionals agree that there are three levels of prevention services; primary prevention, secondary prevention, and tertiary prevention.

[edit] Primary prevention

Primary prevention consists of activities that are targeted at the community level. These activities are meant to impact families prior to any allegations of abuse and neglect. Primary prevention services include public education activities, parent education classes that are open to anyone in the community, and family support programs. Primary prevention can be difficult to measure because you are attempting to impact something before it happens, an unknown variable.

[edit] Secondary prevention

Secondary prevention consists of activities targeted to families that have one or more risk factors including families with substance abuse, teen parents, parents of special need children, single parents, and low income families. Secondary prevention services include parent education classes targeted for high risk parents, respite care for parents of a child with a disability, or home visiting programs for new parents.

[edit] Tertiary prevention

Tertiary prevention consists of activities targeted to families that have confirmed or unconfirmed child abuse and neglect reports. These families have already demonstrated the need for intervention,with or without court supervision. Prevention supporters consider 'tertiary prevention' synonymous with treatment, and entirely different from prevention through family support.

[edit] Treatment

Main article: Complex post-traumatic stress disorder

Main article: Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy

Main article: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Treatment for those experiencing Complex post-traumatic stress disorder, which is caused by early chronic maltreatment, should address each dimension. Often treatment must be multi-modal. Children who have experienced complex trauma caused by chronic maltreatment can be treated effectively with Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy.^[14] ^[15] In addition Cognitive Behavioral Therapy interventions, education, EMDR and other approaches can be effectively used.

[edit] Child abuse prevention organizations

[edit] Childhelp USA

Founded in 1959 by Sara O'Meara and Yvonne Fedderson, Childhelp USA is one of the largest and oldest national nonprofit organizations dedicated to the prevention of child abuse, neglect as well as to the treatment of its victims in the United States. Childhelp's programs, which directly serve abused children and their families, focus on meeting the children's physical, emotional, educational and spiritual needs. In 2005, O'Meara and Fedderson were both nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize.

[edit] ISPCAN (International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect)

The International Society for Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect, founded in 1977, is the only multidisciplinary international organization that brings together a worldwide cross-section of committed professionals to work towards the prevention and treatment of child abuse, neglect and exploitation globally. www.ispcan.org

[edit] Reporting of child abuse

[edit] Authorities

Main article: Child Protective Services

Depending on the country, the agencies responsible for investigating child abuse are either managed nationally, regionally, or locally. These agencies may be called Child Protective Services (CPS), Department of Children and Family Services (DCFS), or by other similar names. In the U.S., these agencies are usually listed in the state government section of the telephone book under "Children" or "Health" or "Human Services". In a few instances in the U.S., some of the functions of these agencies are outsourced to private individuals or companies.

People who investigate claims of child abuse may be called a "children's social worker" (CSW) or a case worker.

[edit] Reporting abuse and neglect in Australia

Child abuse and neglect is the subject of mandatory reporting in most Australian jurisdictions. Usually professional people such as doctors, nurses and teachers are bound to report strong evidence of abuse or neglect. State authorities, such as the Child Protection Unit of the Department of Human Services (Victoria), have statutory authority to investigate and deal with child abuse.

A document from Child Protection and Family Services, in Melbourne states: "The service system is facing escalating and changing demand pressures and we are increasingly aware of growing client complexity. Too many children, young people and families are coming back into the child protection system on a repeat basis with services making little impact on their issues. The analysis confirms this and identifies the need for a strategic rethink if we are to achieve better outcomes for vulnerable children, young people and their families. " Integrated Strategy for Child Protection and Placement Services

[edit] Reporting Abuse in the UK

All professionals who work with children, such as teachers, health professionals and so forth are required by professional codes of conduct to report to social services (or the police as appropriate) any 'concern' (neglect, physical, sexual or emotional abuse) regarding a childs welfare. The police and social services operate a multi-agency approach in cases of serious abuse. This system started in the 1960's following the death of Maria Colwell, but was insufficiently effective and a number of notorious cases over the years have resulted in several major overhauls of the system, the most recent being following the death of Victoria Climbie in 2000. Social Service departments, organised regionally, are required to investigate reports of abuse, keep records and take appropriate action to protect children. This can range from the provision of advice and support to families through to immediate removal under an Emergency Protection Order, and Care proceedings which may result in permanent placement of the child outside the family. In care proceedings the welfare of the child is paramount and all information affecting the welfare of a child must be disclosed by professionals, including lawyers, regardless of their clients interests.

[edit] Notable incidents of child abuse

The death of Marcela Hope Yellowbear
The death of Elisa Izquierdo
The death of Nixzmary Brown
The Dave Pelzer case
The death of Joseph Wallace
The death of Nadine Lockwood
The Joel Steinberg Case
The death of Dennis Jurgens
The Tulasa Thapa Case
The death of Justina Morales
The death of Candace Newmaker
The death of Jeffrey Baldwin
The murder of Matthew Eappen by Louise Woodward
The death of Victoria Climbie [4]
The deaths of Suesan and Sheila Knorr by their mother Theresa Knorr ISBN 0-312-95542-1
The case of Raymond and Vanessa Jackson
The death of Sylvia Likens
The death of Chazarus "Cha Cha" Hill Jr.
The death of Raijon Daniels
The deaths of Trayshawn Harris, Taronta Greely Jr., and Joshua Greely
The death of Ursula Sunshine Assaid [5]
The kidnapping of Elizabeth Smart
The death of Judith Barsi
The death of Samantha Runnion

[edit] See also

[edit] References

^ Abuse at Native Residential Schools
^ [1] "Getting Away with Murder—Of children" and "Missed Clues—Lost Lives : TORONTO STAR, 1998"]
^ Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald, K. (1995). Finding order in disorganization: Lessons from research on maltreated infants’ attachments to their caregivers. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds), Child Maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 135-157). NY: Cambridge University Press.
^ Cicchetti, D., Cummings, E.M., Greenberg, M.T., & Marvin, R.S. (1990). An organizational perspective on attachment beyond infancy. In M. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & M. Cummings (Eds), Attachment in the Preschool Years (pp. 3-50). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
^ Gauthier, L., Stollak, G., Messe, L., & Arnoff, J. (1996). Recall of childhood neglect and physical abuse as differential predictors of current psychological functioning. Child Abuse and Neglect 20, 549-559
^ Malinosky-Rummell, R. & Hansen, D.J. (1993) Long term consequences of childhood physical abuse. Psychological Bulletin 114, 68-69
^ ^a ^b Lyons-Ruth K. & Jacobvitz, D. (1999) Attachment disorganization: unresolved loss, relational violence and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.) Handbook of Attachment. (pp. 520-554). NY: Guilford Press
^ Greenberg, M. (1999). Attachment and Psychopathology in Childhood. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.). Handbook of Attachment (pp.469-496). NY: Guilford Press
^ Solomon, J. & George, C. (Eds.) (1999). Attachment Disorganization. NY: Guilford Press
^ Main, M. & Hesse, E. (1990) Parents’ Unresolved Traumatic Experiences are related to infant disorganized attachment status. In M.T. Greenberg, D. Ciccehetti, & E.M. Cummings (Eds), Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research, and Intervention (pp161-184). Chicago: University of Chicago Press
^ Carlson, E.A. (1988). A prospective longitudinal study of disorganized/disoriented attachment. Child Development 69, 1107-1128
^ Lyons-Ruth, K. (1996). Attachment relationships among children with aggressive behavior problems: The role of disorganized early attachment patterns. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 64, 64-73
^ Lyons-Ruth, K., Alpern, L., & Repacholi, B. (1993). Disorganized infant attachment classification and maternal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile-aggressive behavior in the preschool classroom. Child Development 64, 572-585
^ Becker-Weidman, A., & Shell, D., (Eds.) (2005) Creating Capacity For Attachment, Wood 'N' Barnes, OK. ISBN 1-885473-72-9
^ Becker-Weidman, A., (2006). Treatment for Children with Trauma-Attachment Disorders: Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy, Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal. Vol. 13 #1, April 2006.

On the history of child abuse and attempts to protect children, see Linda Gordon, "Heroes of Their Own Lives: The Politics and History of Family Violence," NY, Penguin, 1988, and Champaign, IL., Univ. of Illinois Press, 2003.