Song Sparrow

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Song Sparrow
Melospiza melodia melodia
Conservation status
Least Concern
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Passeriformes Family: Emberizidae Genus: Melospiza Species: M. melodia
Binomial name
Melospiza melodia (Wilson, 1810)

The Song Sparrow, Melospiza melodia, is a medium-sized American sparrow.

Adults have brown upperparts with dark streaks on the back and are white underneath with dark streaking and a dark brown spot in the middle of the breast. They have a brown cap and a long brown rounded tail. Their face is grey with a streak through the eye. For subspecies, see below.

In the field, they are most easily confused with its congener the Lincoln's Sparrow, and the Savannah Sparrow. The former can be recognized by its shorter, greyer tail and the differently-patterned head, the brown cheeks forming a clear-cut angular patch. The Savannah Sparrow has a forked tail and yellowish flecks on the face when seen up close.

Their favorite habitat is brushy areas and marshes, including salt marshes, across most of Canada and the United States. In southern locations, they are permanent residents. Northern birds migrate to the southern United States or Mexico, where there is also a local population resident all year round. The Song Sparrow is a very rare vagrant to western Europe, with a few recorded in Great Britain and Norway.

These birds forage on the ground, in shrubs or in very shallow water. They mainly eat insects and seeds. Birds in salt marshes may also eat small crustaceans. They nest either in a sheltered location on the ground or in trees or shrubs.

Contents 1 Song 1.1 Media 2 Subspecies 3 References 4 External links 5 Further reading 5.1 Thesis 5.2 Articles

[edit] Song

The male of this species uses its melodious and fairly complex song to declare ownership of its territory and to attract females.

The song sparrow's song consists of a combination of repeated notes, quickly passing isolated notes, and trills. The songs are very crisp, clear, and precise, making them easily distinguishable by human ears. A particular song is determined not only by pitch and rhythm but also by the timbre of the trills. Although one bird will know many songs - as many as 20 different tunes with as many as 1,000 improvised variations on the basic theme^{[citation needed]} -, unlike thrushes, the song sparrow usually repeats the same song many times before switching to a different song.

Song sparrows typically learn their songs from a handful of other birds that have neighboring territories. They are most likely to learn songs that are shared in common between these neighbors. Ultimately, they will choose a territory close to or replacing the birds that they have learned from. This allows the song sparrows to address their neighbors with songs shared in common with those neighbors. It has been demonstrated that song sparrows are able to distinguish neighbors from strangers on the basis of song, and also that females are able to distinguish (and prefer) their mate's songs from those of other neighboring birds, and they prefer songs of neighboring birds to those of strangers.

Other birds such as mockingbirds are not able to effectively imitate the song sparrow's song.

[edit] Media

[edit] Subspecies

The Song Sparrow is one of the birds with the most numerous subspecies in North America, and even on a global scale rivals such species as the Horned Lark, the Yellow Wagtail, the Golden Whistler or the Island Thrush. 52 subspecies were named altogether, of which 24 are considered valid nowadays (Patten 2001; Arcese et al., 2002).

Eastern group - small, brownish, long-winged forms with strong black streaks.

• Melospiza melodia melodia (Wilson, 1810). The nominate subspecies. Eastern half of North American range except coastal areas south from New York State. In winter, they migrate southeastwards. Very contrasting, very light with black streaks below, and grey margins to back feathers. This population includes the forms named as M. m. juddi Bishop, 1896; M. m. acadica Thayer and Bangs, 1914; M. m. beata (non Bangs) Todd, 1930; M. m. euphonia Wetmore, 1936; M. m. callima Oberholser, 1974; and M. m. melanchra Oberholser, 1974.
• Melospiza melodia atlantica Todd, 1924. Inhabits the Atlantic Coast salt marshes from New York State southwards; does not migrate. Differs from nominate by a gray back. Includes M. m. rossignolii Bailey, 1936.
• Melospiza melodia montana Henshaw, 1884. The subspecies west of melodia to the Rocky Mountains. Some birds from the northern part of its range migrate to NW Mexico in winter. Similar to nominate, but larger, duller coloration and more slender bill. Includes M. m. fisherella Oberholser, 1911.

Northwestern group - large, dark, diffuse dark streaks. A study of mtDNA allozyme variation of most forms in this group concluded that they are of comparatively recent origin and that island populations are apparently derived independently from each other (Hare & Shields, 1992).

• Melospiza melodia maxima Gabrielson and Lincoln, 1951, Giant Song Sparrow. W Aleutian Islands (Attu to Atka Island), resident. The largest subspecies (about the size of the California Towhee). Very gray overall, long, diffuse streaks. Bill long and slender.
• Melospiza melodia sanaka McGregor, 1901, Aleutian Song Sparrow. Aleutians from Seguam Island east to Stepovak Bay, Alaska, and islands to the south of Alaskan Peninsula; resident. Similar to maxima; grayer still and bill even more slender. Includes the Semidi Song Sparrow, M. m. semidiensis Brooks, 1919 (Gabrielson and Lincoln, 1951), which may be a distinct subspecies however. Also includes the population from Amak Island (Pruett et al., 2004) named M. m. amaka Gabrielson and Lincoln, 1951 (Amak Song Sparrow) which was extirpated due to habitat destruction, apparently disappearing in the weeks around New Year's Eve, 1980/1981 (there were unconfirmed sightings in 1987 and 1988).
• Melospiza melodia insignis Baird, 1869, Bischoff Song Sparrow. Kodiak, Afognak, Sitkalidak, and Raspberry Islands, and Kukak and Katmai on Alaska Peninsula; many migrate south in winter. A darkish grey, medium-sized form.
• Melospiza melodia kenaiensis Ridgway, 1900, Kenai Song Sparrow. Resident; Pacific coast of Kenai Peninsula and Prince William Sound islands; some resident, some migrant. Smaller and browner than insignis.
• Melospiza melodia caurina Ridgway, 1899, Yakutat Song Sparrow. Northern Gulf of Alaska coast, many migrate to Pacific Northwest in winter. A smaller version of kenaiensis.
• Melospiza melodia rufina (Bonaparte, 1850), Sooty Song Sparrow. Outer islands of Alexander Archipelago and Queen Charlotte Island; most are resident. A very dark, rufous, and small form. Includes M. m. kwaisa Cumming, 1933.
• Melospiza melodia morphna Oberholser, 1899. Coastal region of central British Columbia south to NW Oregon; resident. Lighter, more rufous than rufina. Previously M. m. cinerea (non Gmelin) (Audubon, 1839); M. m. phaea Fisher, 1902 are Central Oregon hybrids between this subspecies and M. m. cleonensis.
• Melospiza melodia merrilli Brewster, 1896. Occurs between the ranges of morphna and montana south to N Nevada; some migrate south in winter. Includes M. m. ingersolli McGregor, 1899 and M. m. inexspectata Riley, 1911 (Riley Song Sparrow; inexpectata is a common lapsus). Doubtfully distinct; intermediate between morphna and montana in appearance also and may be hybrid birds.
• Melospiza melodia cleonensis McGregor, 1899. SW Oregon west of Cascade Mountains south to NW California. Brownish-buffish, notably on the flanks; no grey on back; underside with somewhat diffuse chestnut streaks.

Cismontane California group - small, well-marked and short-winged brownish forms. All resident, except occasional birds from upland populations.

• Melospiza melodia gouldii Baird, 1858. Coastal central California, except San Francisco Bay. A very brown and clear-marked subspecies; buffish (not light grey) fringes of upper back. M. m. santaecrucis Grinnell, 1901 are hybrids with birds from southwards and Central Valley populations.
• Melospiza melodia samuelis (Baird, 1858), San Pablo Song Sparrow. N San Francisco Bay and San Pablo Bay saltmarshes. A small, tiny-billed subspecies with dirty olive upperpart background.
• Melospiza melodia maxillaris Grinnell, 1909, Suisun Song Sparrow. Suisun Bay marshes. Dark upperparts; brown with grey mantle edges; plump bill base.
• Melospiza melodia pusillula Ridgway, 1899, Alameda Song Sparrow. E San Francisco Bay saltmarshes. Yellowest subspecies, paler than samuelis and clear yellow hue below.
• Melospiza melodia heermanni Baird, 1858. Central coastal California and Central Valley south to N Baja California. Similar in color to maxillaris but medium-sized mainland subspecies. Some N-S variation with birds becoming blacker on backs, local populations once separated as M. m. cooperi Ridgway, 1899 and M. m. mailliardi Grinnell, 1911. The latter, occurring around Modesto, may be distinct.
• Melospiza melodia graminea Townsend, 1890. Described from Santa Barbara Island, California Channel Islands. A smaller, pale-grey version of heermanni. Originally called Santa Barbara Song Sparrow; birds from the Coronados Islands were described as M. m. coronatorum Grinnell and Daggett, 1903, those from San Miguel Island as M. m. micronyx Grinnell, 1928 and those from San Clemente, Santa Rosa and Anacapa Islands as M. m. clementae Townsend, 1890. Hybrid population with heermanni on Santa Cruz Island. Extirpated on Santa Barbara (and possibly San Clemente) by feral cats, c.1967-1970.

Southwestern group - small, pale, streaks rufous; all resident.

• Melospiza melodia fallax (Baird, 1854), Desert Song Sparrow. Sonoran and parts of Mojave Deserts to E Arizona. A pale ruddy desert form. Synonyms are M. m. saltonis Grinnell, 1909, M. m. virginis Marshall and Behle, 1942 and M. m. bendirei Phillips, 1943.
• Melospiza fasciata rivularis Bryant, 1888. Central Baja California. Similar to fallax, lightly streaked breast and long slender bill.
• Melospiza melodia goldmani Nelson, 1899. Not yet found outside El Salto area, Sierra Madre Oriental. Dark reddish brown back with brownish streaks just as in morphna.

Mexican Plateau group - black-spotted, white throats; all resident.

• M. m. adusta Nelson, 1899. Río Lerma drainage from Zacapú to Lago Yuriria. Bold black pattern on belly and back, clear white throat. Birds become less rudd brown going east.
• M. m. villai Phillips and Dickerman, 1957. Headwaters of Río Lerma near Toluca. Darker and duller brown than adusta, distinctly large.
• M. m. mexicana Ridgway, 1874. Hidalgo to Puebla. Duller and paler than adusta, birds becoming greyish going south. Includes M. m. azteca Dickerman, 1963 and M. m. niceae Dickerman, 1963. "M. m. pectoralis" (ex von Müller, 1865) cannot be assigned to a known Song Sparrow population.

The taxa mailliardi, maxillaris, samuelis (all Category 3), pusillula (Category 2) and graminea (Category 1) are listed as Species of Special Concern in California (California Department of Fish and Game, 2006).

[edit] References

• Arcese, P.; Sogge, M. K.; Marr, A. B. & Patten, M. A. (2002): Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia). In: Poole, A. & Gill, F.: The Birds of North America 704. The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.

• Beecher, M. D.; Campbell, S.E. & Stoddard, P.K. (1994): Correlation of Song Learning and Territory Establishment Strategies in the Song Sparrow. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91(4): 1450-1454. PDF fulltext

• BirdLife International (2004). Melospiza melodia. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 12 May 2006. Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern

• California Department of Fish and Game (2006): California Bird Species of Special Concern. Linked PDf fulltext

• Gabrielson, Ira N. & Lincoln, Frederick C. (1951): The Races of Song Sparrows in Alaska. Condor 53(5): 250-255. PDF fulltext

• Hare, M. P. & Shields, G. F. (1992): Mitochondrial-DNA variation in the polytypic Alaskan song sparrow. Auk 109(1): 126-132. PDF fulltext

• O'Loghlen, A.L. & Beecher; M.D. (1997): Sexual preferences for mate song types in female song sparrows. Animal Behavior 53(4): 835-841. PDF fulltext

• Patten, M. A. (2001): The roles of habitat and signalling in speciation: evidence from a contact zone of two Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia) subspecies. Ph.D. diss., Univ. of California, Riverside.

• Pruett, Christin; Gibson, Daniel D. & Winker, Kevin (2003): Amak Island Song Sparrows (Melospiza melodia amaka) are not evolutionarily significant. Ornithological Science 3: 133–138. DOI:10.2326/osj.3.133 PDF fulltext

• Interesting Song Sparrow Facts donated by BirdHouses101.com

• Stoddard, Beecher, M.D.; Horning, C.L. & Campbell, S.E. (1991): Recognition of individual neighbors by song in the song sparrow, a species with song repertoires. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 29(3): 211-215.

[edit] External links

• Song Sparrow by John Audubon
• Song Sparrow Species Account - Cornell Lab of Ornithology
• Song Sparrow Information and Photos - South Dakota Birds and Birding
• Song Sparrow Melospiza melodia USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter

[edit] Further reading

[edit] Thesis

• Arcese P. M.Sc. (1984). Some aspects of dominance behavior in the song sparrow, (Melospiza melodia). The University of British Columbia (Canada), Canada.

• Arcese P. Ph.D. (1988). Intrasexual competition, dispersal, territoriality and the mating system of the song sparrow on Mandarte Island, British Columbia. The University of British Columbia (Canada), Canada.

• Arter TH. M.S. (1981). REPLACEMENT BEHAVIOR OF MALE SONG SPARROWS AND YELLOW WARBLERS AS DETERMINED FROM REMOVAL EXPERIMENTS. Michigan State University, United States -- Michigan.

• Bower JL. Ph.D. (2000). Acoustic interactions during naturally occurring territorial conflict in a song sparrow neighborhood. Cornell University, United States -- New York.

• Cassidy ALEV. Ph.D. (1994). Song variation and learning in island populations of song sparrows. The University of British Columbia (Canada), Canada.

• Chase MK. Ph.D. (2001). Reproductive success, natal dispersal, and recruitment in a song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) population breeding in California coastal scrub. University of California, Riverside, United States -- California.

• Dickerman RW. Ph.D. (1961). THE SONG SPARROWS OF THE MEXICAN PLATEAU. University of Minnesota, United States -- Minnesota.

• Edwards DB. M.Sc. (2005). Tests of hypotheses concerning early male arrival based on studies of two species of passerines: Ruby-crowned kinglets (Regulus calendula) and song sparrows (Melospiza m. melodia). Carleton University (Canada), Canada.

• Elekonich MM. Ph.D. (1997). Female-female territorial aggression and its hormonal control in the song sparrow. University of Washington, United States -- Washington.

• Foote JR. M.Sc. (2004). Repertoire size, song sharing and song rate of male eastern song sparrows (Melospiza melodia). Dalhousie University (Canada), Canada.

• Grenier JL. Ph.D. (2004). Ecology, behavior, and trophic adaptations of the salt marsh song sparrow Melospiza melodia samuelis: The importance of the tidal influence gradient. University of California, Berkeley, United States -- California.

• Harris MA. M.Sc. (1973). Song sparrows : reactions to variation in song structure. McGill University (Canada), Canada.

• Hill CE. Ph.D. (1999). Song and extra-pair mate choice in song sparrows. University of Washington, United States -- Washington.

• Hochachka WM. Ph.D. (1990). Determinants of fitness in an island population of song sparrows. The University of British Columbia (Canada), Canada.

• Howell CA. Ph.D. (1999). Life history evolution in the song sparrow: An experimental approach. University of Missouri - Columbia, United States -- Missouri.

• Johnston RF. Ph.D. (1955). POPULATION STRUCTURE IN SALT MARSH SONG SPARROWS. University of California, Berkeley, United States -- California.

• Keller LF. Ph.D. (1996). Inbreeding in an insular population of song sparrows. The University of Wisconsin - Madison, United States -- Wisconsin.

• Kramer HG. Ph.D. (1983). THE SONG PATTERNING OF SONG SPARROWS, MELOSPIZA MELODIA, IN RELATION TO TERRITORIAL DEFENSE. McGill University (Canada), Canada.

• Marshall JTJ. Ph.D. (1948). ECOLOGIC RACES OF SONG SPARROWS IN THE SAN FRANCISCO BAY REGION. University of California, Berkeley, United States -- California.

• McLaren CM. M.Sc. (2000). Patterns of host nest use by brown-headed cowbirds parasitizing song sparrows and yellow warblers. The University of Manitoba (Canada), Canada.

• Mulligan JA. Ph.D. (1963). PHYSICAL ANALYSIS OF VARIATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE SONG OF MELOSPIZA MELODIA. University of California, Berkeley, United States -- California.

• Nordby JC. Ph.D. (1999). Song learning in the song sparrow (Melospiza melodia): Ecological and social factors. University of Washington, United States -- Washington.

• Patten MA. Ph.D. (2001). The roles of habitat and signalling in speciation: Evidence from a contact zone of two song sparrow (Melospiza melodia) subspecies. University of California, Riverside, United States -- California.

• Smith JI. Ph.D. (1993). Environmental influence on the ontogeny, allometry, and behavior of the song sparrow (Melospiza melodia). University of California, Berkeley, United States -- California.

• Stoddard PK. Ph.D. (1989). Song repertoire use and perception by male song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) in the Puget Sound region. University of Washington, United States -- Washington.

• Tompa FS. Ph.D. (1964). FACTORS DETERMINING THE NUMBERS OF SONG SPARROWS ON MANDARTE ISLAND, BRITISH COLUMBIA. The University of British Columbia (Canada), Canada.

[edit] Articles

• Anderson RC, Searcy WA & Nowicki S. (2005). Partial song matching in an eastern population of song sparrows, Melospiza melodia. Animal Behaviour. vol 69, p. 189-196.

• Arcese P. (1989). Intrasexual Competition and the Mating System in Primarily Monogamous Birds the Case of the Song Sparrow. Animal Behaviour. vol 38, no 1. p. 96-111.

• Arcese P, Smith JNM, Hochachka WM, Rogers CM & Ludwig D. (1992). Stability Regulation and the Determination of Abundance in an Insular Song Sparrow Population. Ecology. vol 73, no 3. p. 805-822.

• Baptista LF. (1988). IMITATIONS OF WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW SONGS BY A SONG SPARROW. Condor. vol 90, no 2. p. 486-489.

• Baptista LF & Catchpole CK. (1989). VOCAL MIMICRY AND INTERSPECIFIC AGGRESSION IN SONGBIRDS - EXPERIMENTS USING WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW IMITATION OF SONG SPARROW SONG. Behaviour. vol 109, p. 247-257.

• Beecher MD, Campbell SE & Burt JM. (1994). SONG PERCEPTION IN THE SONG SPARROW - BIRDS CLASSIFY BY SONG TYPE BUT NOT BY SINGER. Animal Behaviour. vol 47, no 6. p. 1343-1351.

• Catchpole CK & Baptista LF. (1988). A TEST OF THE COMPETITION HYPOTHESIS OF VOCAL MIMICRY, USING SONG SPARROW IMITATION OF WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW SONG. Behaviour. vol 106, p. 119-128.

• Chan Y & Arcese P. (2002). Subspecific differentiation and conservation of song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) in the San Francisco Bay region inferred by microsatellite loci analysis. Auk. vol 119, no 3. p. 641-657.

• Chase MK. (2002). Nest site selection and nest success in a Song Sparrow population: The significance of spatial variation. Condor. vol 104, no 1. p. 103-116.

• Chase MK, Nur N & Geupel GR. (2005). Effects of weather and population density on reproductive success and population dynamics in a Song Sparrow (Melospiza melodia) population: A long-term study. Auk. vol 122, no 2. p. 571-592.

• Cink CL. (1975). The Song Sparrow as a Nebraska USA Breeding Bird. Nebraska Bird Review. vol 43, no 1. p. 3-8.

• Collins JN & Resh VH. (1985). Utilization of Natural and Man-Made Habitats by the Salt Marsh Song Sparrow Melospiza-Melodia-Samuelis. California Fish & Game. vol 71, no 1. p. 40-52.

• Degraaf RM. (1989). Territory Sizes of Song Sparrows Melospiza-Melodia in Rural and Suburban Habitats. Canadian Field Naturalist. vol 103, no 1. p. 43-47.

• Dhondt AA & Smith JNM. (1980). Post Nuptial Molt of the Song Sparrow on Mandarte Island Canada in Relation to Breeding. Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol 58, no 4. p. 513-520.

• Elekonich MM. (1998). Song sparrow males use female-typical vocalizations in fall. Condor. vol 100, no 1. p. 145-148.

• Elekonich MM. (2000). Female song sparrow, Melospiza melodia, response to simulated conspecific and heterospecific intrusion across three seasons. Animal Behaviour. vol 59, p. 551-557.

• Foote JR & Barber CA. (2007). High level of song sharing in an eastern population of song sparrow (Melospiza melodia). Auk. vol 124, no 1. p. 53-62.

• Gorton REJ. (1977). Territorial Interactions in Sympatric Song Sparrow and Bewicks Wren Populations. Auk. vol 94, no 4. p. 701-708.

• Halliburton R & Mewaldt LR. (1976). SURVIVAL AND MOBILITY IN A POPULATION OF PACIFIC COAST SONG SPARROWS (MELOSPIZA-MELODIA-GOULDII). Condor. vol 78, no 4. p. 499-504.

• Harris MA & Lemon RE. (1976). RESPONSES OF MALE SONG SPARROWS MELOSPIZA-MELODIA TO NEIGHBORING AND NON-NEIGHBORING INDIVIDUALS. Ibis. vol 118, no 3. p. 421-424.

• Hatch DRM. (1968). Unusually Large Song Sparrow Clutch Letter 8 Eggs. Blue Jay. vol 26, no 4.

• Hatch MI. (1997). Variation in song sparrow nest defense: Individual consistency and relationship to nest success. Condor. vol 99, no 2. p. 282-289.

• Hiebert SM, Stoddard PK & Arcese P. (1989). Repertoire Size Territory Acquisition and Reproductive Success in the Song Sparrow. Animal Behaviour. vol 37, no 2. p. 266-273.

• Hill CE, Campbell SE, Nordby JC, Burt JM & Beecher MD. (1999). Song sharing in two populations of song sparrows (Melospiza melodia). Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology. vol 46, no 5. p. 341-349.

• Horning CL, Beecher MD, Stoddard PK & Campbell SE. (1993). SONG PERCEPTION IN THE SONG SPARROW - IMPORTANCE OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE SONG IN SONG TYPE CLASSIFICATION. Ethology. vol 94, no 1. p. 46-58.

• Jackson L. (1971). Song Sparrow Nests in Nashville. Migrant. vol 42, no 1.

• Jones AL, Shriver WG, Bulgin NL, Lockwood R & Vickery PD. (2003). A probable grasshopper X savannah sparrow hybrid singing a song sparrow song. Wilson Bulletin. vol 115, no 3. p. 231-236.

• Kern MD, Sogge MK, Kern RB & Van Riper C, III. (1993). Nests and nest sites of the San Miguel Island song sparrow. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol 64, no 3. p. 367-381.

• Knapton RW & Krebs JR. (1974). SETTLEMENT PATTERNS, TERRITORY SIZE, AND BREEDING DENSITY IN SONG SPARROW (MELOSPIZA-MELODIA). Canadian Journal of Zoology-Revue Canadienne De Zoologie. vol 52, no 11. p. 1413-1420.

• Kramer HG & Lemon RE. (1983). DYNAMICS OF TERRITORIAL SINGING BETWEEN NEIGHBORING SONG SPARROWS (MELOSPIZA-MELODIA). Behaviour. vol 85, p. 198-223.

• Kramer HG, Lemon RE & Morris MJ. (1985). SONG SWITCHING AND AGONISTIC STIMULATION IN THE SONG SPARROW (MELOSPIZA-MELODIA) - 5 TESTS. Animal Behaviour. vol 33, no FEB. p. 135-149.

• Kroodsma DE. (1977). RE-EVALUATION OF SONG DEVELOPMENT IN SONG SPARROW. Animal Behaviour. vol 25, no MAY. p. 390-399.

• Marler P & Peters S. (1987). A SENSITIVE PERIOD FOR SONG ACQUISITION IN THE SONG SPARROW, MELOSPIZA-MELODIA - A CASE OF AGE-LIMITED LEARNING. Ethology. vol 76, no 2. p. 89-100.

• Marler P & Peters S. (1988). THE ROLE OF SONG PHONOLOGY AND SYNTAX IN VOCAL LEARNING PREFERENCES IN THE SONG SPARROW, MELOSPIZA-MELODIA. Ethology. vol 77, no 2. p. 125-149.

• Marr AB, Keller LF & Arcese P. (2002). Heterosis and outbreeding depression in descendants of natural immigrants to an inbred population of song sparrows (Melospiza melodia). Evolution. vol 56, no 1. p. 131-142.

• McArthur PD. (1986). SIMILARITY OF PLAYBACK SONGS TO SELF SONG AS A DETERMINANT OF RESPONSE STRENGTH IN SONG SPARROWS (MELOSPIZA-MELODIA). Animal Behaviour. vol 34, p. 199-207.

• McLaren CM, Woolfenden BE, Gibbs HL & Sealy SG. (2003). Genetic and temporal patterns of multiple parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds (Molothrus ater) on song sparrows (Melospiza melodia). Canadian Journal of Zoology. vol 81, no 2. p. 281-286.

• Nelson DA. (1987). SONG SYLLABLE DISCRIMINATION BY SONG SPARROWS (MELOSPIZA-MELODIA). Journal of Comparative Psychology. vol 101, no 1. p. 25-32.

• Nol E & Smith JNM. (1987). Effects of Age and Breeding Experience on Seasonal Reproductive Success in the Song Sparrow. Journal of Animal Ecology. vol 56, no 1. p. 301-314.

• Nordby JC, Campbell SE, Burt JM & Beecher MD. (2000). Social influences during song development in the song sparrow: a laboratory experiment simulating field conditions. Animal Behaviour. vol 59, p. 1187-1197.

• O'Connor KD, Marr AB, Arcese P, Keller LF, Jeffery KJ & Bruford MW. (2006). Extra-pair fertilization and effective population size in the song sparrow Melospiza melodia. Journal of Avian Biology. vol 37, no 6. p. 572-578.

• Okanoya K & Dooling RJ. (1988). HEARING IN THE SWAMP SPARROW, MELOSPIZA-GEORGIANA, AND THE SONG SPARROW, MELOSPIZA-MELODIA. Animal Behaviour. vol 36, p. 726-732.

• O'Loghlen AL & Beecher MD. (1999). Mate, neighbor and stranger songs: a female song sparrow perspective. Animal Behaviour. vol 58, p. 13-20.

• Owen-Ashley NT & Wingfield JC. (2003). Seasonal differences in expression of sickness behavior after experimental 'pseudoinfection' in free-living song sparrows (Melospiza melodia morphna). Integrative and Comparative Biology. vol 43, no 6. p. 1048-1048.

• Parks RA. (1970). Song Sparrow and House Wren Nesting in Atlanta. Oriole. vol 35, no 2-3. p. 32-33.

• Peters S, Searcy WA, Beecher MD & Nowicki S. (2000). Geographic variation in the organization of Song Sparrow repertoires. Auk. vol 117, no 4. p. 936-942.

• Rastogi AD, Zanette L & Clinchy M. (2006). Food availability affects diurnal nest predation and adult antipredator behaviour in song sparrows, Melospiza melodia. Animal Behaviour. vol 72, no Part 4. p. 933-940.

• Reed JR. (1981). SONG SPARROW RULES FOR FEEDING NESTLINGS. Auk. vol 98, no 4. p. 828-831.

• Reid JM, Arcese P, Cassidy ALEV, Hiebert SM, Smith JNM, Stoddard PK, Marr AB & Keller LF. (2004). Song repertoire size predicts initial mating success in male song sparrows, Melospiza melodia. Animal Behaviour. vol 68, no Part 5. p. 1055-1063.

• Reid JM, Arcese P, Cassidy ALEV, Marr AB, Smith JNM & Keller LF. (2005). Hamilton and Zuk meet heterozygosity? Song repertoire size indicates inbreeding and immunity in song sparrows (Melospiza melodia). Proceedings of the Royal Society Biological Sciences Series B. vol 272, no 1562. p. 481-487.

• Rogers CM, Smith JNM, Hochachka WM, Cassidy A, Taitt MJ, Arcese P & Schluter D. (1991). SPATIAL VARIATION IN WINTER SURVIVAL OF SONG SPARROWS MELOSPIZA-MELODIA. Ornis Scandinavica. vol 22, no 4. p. 387-395.

• Saunders CA, Arcese P & O'Connor KD. (2003). Nest site characteristics in the Song Sparrow and parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds. Wilson Bulletin. vol 115, no 1. p. 24-28.

• Schulter D & Smith JNM. (1986). Natural Selection on Beak and Body Size in the Song Sparrow Melospiza-Melodia. Evolution. vol 40, no 2. p. 221-231.

• Searcy WA, Marler P & Peters SS. (1981). Species Song Discrimination in Adult Female Song Sparrows Melospiza-Melodia and Swamp Sparrows Melospiza-Georgiana. Animal Behaviour. vol 29, no 4. p. 997-1003.

• Searcy WA, McArthur PD & Yasukawa K. (1985). Song Repertoire Size and Male Quality in Song Sparrows Melospiza-Melodia. Condor. vol 87, no 2. p. 222-228.

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