Sinophobia
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Sinophobia is a consistent hostility toward people of Chinese origin, and may also refer to hostility towards Chinese culture, history or government. The term describes the actions and attitudes of individuals as well as the policies and pronouncements of governments and other organizations.
Sinophobic attitudes often have Chinese minorities outside of China proper as their target. This is true both in Asia (historically and in the modern era) and in the West. In this sense, the term essentially denotes an ethnic bigotry, often complicated by the economic and political exigencies of immigration and majority-minority relations. Where it is directed at the country itself, anti-Chinese sentiment may or may not qualify as ethnic or racial prejudice, as criticisms of the Communist Party of China are not necessarily meant to impugn the Chinese population per se. One obvious example is protests against the People's Republic of China government by supporters of Taiwan independence.
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[edit] Historical Background of Sinophobic Sentiments
Largely drawn to the Chinese empire's persistent existence over a vast territory in East Asia employing a system of bureaucracy relying on self-efficiency (Confucianism) from plebeian, the Han Chinese society has shown signs of declining vitality in both military ambition and individual creativity during the 17th to early 20th century. Even though the Hans were a highly heterogeneous and ever-evolving ethnic identity, their major cultural identity was defined during its Han and Tang dynasties, thus casting a long shadow for other ethnic cultures within the territory to fertilize. A few major military successes in subduing China proper by European powers further consolidated subconscious fear in modern Chinese society. Industrial revolution had brought shocking impact for Chinese society under Manchu rule to find reasons to be perceived as a society barely able to defend itself against colonizers. Growing resentment from the outside world against general values of Chinese society since the successful Western colonization or Westernization in the surrounding countries has left the large empire unconquered but deeply isolated. The pan-Chinese Sinosphere including Japan, Korea, Vietnam had successively taken opportunities to wean from Chinese influence as sign of their own national maturity; some nations including Japan had employed cultural repellent sentiments to quicken their own cultural advancement. By the end of the 19th century, the internal chaos of China in both civil life and the Manchu regime reached the point of dysfunction, giving rise to quick popularization of negative images of Chinese as representation of a corrupt and undesirable state of living. That was done both overseas by Chinese export of coastal farmers as laborers, and in China proper by quick adaptation of Western elitism.
The 20th century has seen China struggling to define itself in successive panic reactions to its social dysfunction and world isolation, with the overthrowing of the Qing Dynasty, and several major conflicts both within and without: the Xinhai Revolution, the Northern Expedition, the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese Civil War, the Korean War and the Vietnam War. After the Chinese Civil War, Communism gained a stronger foothold and ruled the country since 1949. With the crumbling down of communist ideologies, social dysfunction resurfaced in 1980s, giving rise to another wave of negative sentiments in China-bashing; however, economical and political reforms in the recent decades had somehow improved the attitude of the Western media on China, while its growing status as a contending power of the U.S. causes suspicion in Western and neighbouring countries.
[edit] Southeast Asia
Until recently, China had maintained little interest or influence over countries that are outside of the Sinosphere. However a small portion of Chinese population from the trading coastal provinces and Punti-Hakka Clan Wars refugees had made huge impact on the Southeastern economies. Population-wise they reached a majority in Singapore, a large minority in Malaysia, and minorities of less than 5% in Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand amongst others. The strong tradition of trading and clan-style self-reliance did bring them into a tradition of controlling much capital and general economic activity in these countries, often compared to Jews in Europe, and in a similar sense encouraging a different kind of Sinophobic sentiments. One study of Chinese as a "market-dominant minority" notes that: "Chinese market dominance and intense resentment amongst the indigenous majority is characteristic of virtually every country in Southeast Asia." (Chua, 2003, pg. 61)[Full citation needed] In the countries with small Chinese minorities, the economic disparity is remarkable: with 1% of the population in the Philippines and 3% in Indonesia, Chinese controlled 60% and 70% of the nations' private economy, respectively, in 1998 (Chua, pg. 3, pg. 43)[Full citation needed]. Similar statistics hold in Burma.
This radically asymmetrical economic position has often created explosive anti-Chinese sentiment amongst the poorer majorities. This has led to violence, such as in 1969 in Malaysia and in 1998 in Indonesia, where more than 2000 people died in rioting [1]. In the Philippines hundreds of Chinese are kidnapped every year and often killed regardless of a ransom—a problem the poor, ethnic Filipino, police are often indifferent to (Chua, pp. 1-5)[Full citation needed]. The government of Malaysia is constitutionally obliged to uphold the privileged status of the Bumiputra, at the expense of but not limited to ethnic Chinese.
[edit] Japan
Sinophobia is especially common in Japan.[citation needed]While Japan was maturing under the Tokugawa shogunate into a modern aristocratic society, a belief in superiority over Chinese was promoted, theorized as the contemporary Chinese society was not made of the Chinese blood of the classical period, from which Japan had founded the base of her own culture.[citation needed]
The Meiji Restoration of 1866–1869 had made Japan an industrial power ready for colonization abroad, whereas China was sinking into the deepest state of dysfunction. Japan's comtempt for China at this time can be seen in its official use of the word “Shina”, borrowed from the European colonizing powers, to refer to China, instead of the high classic and therefore more respectful name of “Chūgoku”. Bloody wars between the two countries provided further ground for encouraging racism among Japanese citizens. These Sinophobic sentiments helped to materialize the Imperial soldiers' atrocities in massive scale against the Chinese during World War II, culminating in the Nanking Massacre.
Openly sinophobic sentiments were stifled following the end of the Second World War and became a taboo topic in the mainstream media, even though Japan and the People's Republic of China took opposite sides in the Cold War. Except in a handful of cases, such as the Japanese name for "South China Sea" and an alternative term for ramen, use of the word Shina all but disappeared. There was little contact between Japan and the People's Republic of China in the ensuing decades. There was little discussion of China until the relationship between the two countries were normalised in 1972, when there was a surge of interest in Japan about its neighbour. China renounced reparations for the Second World War, partly to avoid appearing less generous than Taiwan which earlier did the same and to strengthen its position against the Soviet Union, and there was considerable gratitude and goodwill in Japan at the time. Sinophobia at this time was confined to the context of fear of communism among the still-strong pro-Taiwan forces in politics. Public animosity towards the People's Republic of China was minimal compared to those against the Soviet Union, and a friendly mood prevailed. [2] Improvements were also seen in social attitudes towards ethnic Chinese residents of Japan, along with other minorities such as Zainichi Koreans, Ainu and Burakumin, in the post-war decades.
However, in the past decade Japan has seen a gradual resurgence of anti-Chinese sentiments, particularly since 2000. (The Soviet Union had disavowed Communism and dissolved nine years before; thus, Communism was no longer the overriding issue it once was.) One reason for the revival of sinophobia is feelings against increased levels of migrants and guest workers from China, whom the media frequently associate with the rising crime rate. These xenophobic sentiments are coupled with the effects of an increasingly tense political relationship between Japan and the PRC. The exceptionally rapid growth of the Chinese economy is a source of fear and resentment among Japanese, as some see it as a sign of the re-emergence of Chinese hegemony in Asia. In addition China's military build up and its stance against Taiwan has led some in Japan to see it as a potential threat to national security. There is a perception in Japan that the PRC is continuing to use the issue of history, such as the Japanese history textbook controversy and official visits to the Yasukuni shrine, both as a diplomatic card and to use Japan as a scapegoat in domestic politics. The Anti-Japanese Riots in Spring of 2005 and increasing hostility also caused more fear of China within the Japanese public. One of the effects is a political climate which is increasingly tolerant of anti-Chinese comments by right wing politicians.
[edit] In the West
China has figured in the Western imagination for more than two millennia in a variety of ways: positively, as an inventive, well-organized alternative civilization and negatively as a monolithic and repressive society. Of the latter, the concept of modern repression is can be viewed in a diametric fashion: on the one hand, anti-communists and proponents of liberal democracy are quick to point out the faults of the People's Republic of China in areas such as human rights. Still others, see China as a closed, traditional society which is hostile to more socially liberal ideas. Moreover, issues like Tiananmen Square and the political status of Tibet continue to be significant irritants in Sino-American relations.
The dramatic change of western imagination towards China from the flamboyant descriptions of The Travels of Marco Polo (which was written in the era of the Mongol conquest and described what was, in essence, a vast Mongolian colonial empire) to universal resentments happened during the unsuccessful early expansion of the East India Company into the Chinese Empire under Manchu rulers. Later successful attempts in exporting opium into China Empire and a series of other commercial success had exposed to Europeans a political fact: China's culture appeared glorious, but its government showed weaknesses that could be exploited for commercial and cultural gain.
Sinophobia in the West became more popular, as China was becoming an enormous source of immigrants for the west (including the American West). Numerous pioneering immigrants to North America were attracted by western wages, offered by large railway companies in the late 19th century as they looked for cheap labor to build transcontinental railroads.
Sinophobic policies (such as the Chinese Exclusion Act, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, anti-Chinese zoning laws and restrictive covenants, the policies of Richard Seddon, and the White Australia policy) and pronouncements on the "yellow peril" were in evidence as late as the mid-20th century in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
[edit] Central Asia
In Russia’s Siberia and the Russian Far East, a tradition of dispute over territorial rights is thinly woven under the conflicts between two largely competing heterogeneous cultures over the limited resources. Further than that, there is a fear of a demographic takeover by Chinese immigrants in sparsely populated Russian areas [3] [4].
In Muslim states of Central Asia where Han culture has taken little foothold, growing resentment towards Chinese culture is used politically for their own cultural maturation, and in some cases to encourage independence of ethnic states from the vast territory of China, most prominently East Turkestan and Tibet. However, Islam did not exist when Han culture had already exerted a great influence on Chinese territory near Central Asia via the Silk Road.
[edit] International Phenomena
Internationally, China's booming economy, enormous population, and tremendous growth in power has been the subject of much speculation and apprehension with many believing that China could soon be in a position to challenge the United States as the sole superpower. Many are uneasy with the prospect of burgeoning Chinese hegemony as a country controlled by an unelected, single-party socialist state.
There is a new level of resentments from the other victim countries of globalization in competition of labor intensive manufacturing base. Many countries have experienced drastic loss of economic competitiveness as more manufacturing facilities are being relocated into China for its self-reliance, stable labor supply and favorable government policies.
Meanwhile, China continues to be a major source of immigrants into developing countries in Latin America and Eastern Europe, as well as major industrial nations. Their apparent difference from local cultures and often underdeveloped communication skills have encouraged local Sinophobic sentiments often to violence. A number of massive ransacking of Chinese business and personal attacks have been reported, causing the Chinese government to become increasingly aware of its nationals unsettling state abroad.
[edit] Sinophobia in Children's Culture
Sinophobia, like other forms of racism, is often passed down to newer generations as exemplified by the Spanish rhyme "Chino, Chino, Japonés, come caca, no me des" (approximately "Chinese, Chinese, Japanese, eat poop, don't it to me/don't give me that") and the English equivalent, "Chinese, Japanese, dirty knees, look at these" during which the children pull their eyes up and then down (to mock the shape of Asian eyes), touch their knees (to imply that Asians farm all day) and pull the fronts of their shirts out (to satirise the fact that Asian breasts are perceived to be small). Other children's rhymes include "Chinese Japanese they wear nappies", and "Chinese Japanese they are funny, this is the way they count their money, oosha, oosha, turn around, boosha" which was accompanied by actions. Also, in some English speaking cultures, Chinese get teased by being called chinks and referred to as Ching Chong.
[edit] Reactions from Chinese
Compared to the Jewish community’s recent reaction to anti-Semitism, the reactions of overseas Chinese are comparatively more passionate; there has been sign of unparalleled unity in effort when combating ethnic based stereotyping, such as the unification of Taiwanese, Hong Kong, and Macau residents, as well as a significant portion of mainland Chinese do express resentment against such Sinophobic slights, and organized counteraction, when provoked, is a sight to be seen[citation needed]
Amongst the Chinese, there are those in the community who generally regard such prejudices as the result of a lack of understanding towards their culture, and thus take pride in its uniqueness, along with the belief that its long and enduring legacy as a people, and as a center of innovation and knowledge will win out over such petty racism; this sentiment is especially evident with the growing numbers of Chinese becoming conscious towards China's rise as an emerging superpower in the 21st century. Many also point to the eventual economic and political power enjoyed by the ethnic Chinese minority in countries where Chinese emigrants have come to dominate as a model for the Chinese communities in other countries. On the other hand, not a single country has not ever persecuted their ethnic Chinese under the said circumstance[5].
As an enormous population residing over vast territory under nontraditional Western rules, China has played by its own rules in the last two millennia and will continue to do so in the coming centuries. There is often a belief that the rest of the world will eventually communicate with China on its own terms. Interestingly, reciprocal understanding from current Western countries is often also absent. Likely there will be some time before a true integration of the East and West.
[edit] The Anti-Chinese Chinese
Amongst overseas Chinese immigrant populations, there has emerged a new brand of Anti-Chinese sentiment coming from Chinese immigrants. This kind of new-age discrimination is rooted in feelings of elitism and conflicts between Chinese and western culture. Overseas Chinese, for example, treat their fellow immigrant counterparts with a different approach than people native to the country, and often feel a natural prejudice against fellow Chinese and believe they are less genuine and harder to deal with[citation needed]. Many overseas Chinese also avoid buying Made in China goods, especially electronics, with the belief that they are of inferior quality, preferring Japanese or American brands instead.[citation needed] In addition, second-generation immigrants tend to discriminate heavily against new immigrants due to their apparent inability to incorporate themselves into the western lifestyle, resulting in labels such as FOB (short for fresh off the boat).
In China, anti-Chinese sentiment is stemmed from a new-age ideology of Western supremacy, alternatively known as an envy for the West, and is most prevalent amongst Chinese youth who feel that Chinese culture is inadequate or inferior to western culture, and would prefer western clothing, music, and the general lifestyle. Several schools of Chinese intellectuals attack China's apparent lack of originality in various facets, claiming many Chinese institutions are attempting to emulate similar institutions in the West, especially in professional sports (CBA and the NBA), music (New-age Chinese hip-hop and rap), media (Pop contests SuperGirl and American Idol and the Internet (Baidu and Google).
The name "China", in recent decades, is sometimes taken to refer exclusively to the original political entity under the control of the People's Republic of China, or Mainland China. As a result, in Chinese territories under different systems such as Hong Kong and Macau, places with a Chinese culture and a different government such as Taiwan and (to some extent) Singapore, and other communities which are culturally Chinese but remain politically distinct in one way or another (such as the Chinese in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the USA), there is significant discrimination against mainland Chinese, who are regarded as inferior because of wealth levels. Although this attitude is slowly fading because of China's rise economically, it has made a lasting cultural impact. In overseas Chinese communities, people from the aforementioned areas often emphasize and brand their ancestry as something distinct from the label China or Chinese (for example, people from Hong Kong in Canada rarely mention that they are "Chinese", even after handover to PRC control in 1997).
The Epoch Times, a newspaper linked to the Falun Gong, is sometimes regarded by the Chinese Communist Party (as well as some Chinese) as a publication which promotes Sinophobia under the guise of being an anti-CCP publication. However, the Falun Gong negates this claim by pointing to articles in the Epoch Times which take a more positive attitude towards Chinese culture.
[edit] See also
- Asian invasion
- Chinese Massacre of 1871
- Massacre of Lambing Flat
- Jakarta Riots of May 1998
- Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia
- Malaysian Chinese
- Han Chinese in Mongolia
- Fu Manchu
- Ming the Merciless
- Sinophobes
- Yellow Peril
- Xenophobia
- Racism#Malaysia
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