Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System
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The Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) is a system used in air traffic control (ATC) to enhance radar monitoring and separation of air traffic. ATCRBS assists ATC radars by acquiring information about the aircraft being monitored, and providing this information to the radar controllers. The controllers can use the information to identify returns from aircraft (known as targets) and to distinguish those returns from ground clutter.
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[edit] Parts of the system
The system consists of transponders, installed in aircraft, and secondary surveillance radars (SSRs), installed at air traffic control facilities. The SSR transmits interrogations and listens for any replies. Transponders that receive an interrogation decode it, decide whether to reply, and then respond with the requested information when appropriate. Note that in common informal usage, the term "SSR" is sometimes used to refer to the entire ATCRBS system, however this term (as found in technical publications) properly refers only to the ground radar itself.
[edit] Ground equipment
An ATC ground station consists of two radar systems and their associated support components. The most prominent component is the primary surveillance radar, or PSR. It is also sometimes referred to as skin paint radar because it operates using traditional radar principles, transmitting radio pulses and listening for and timing the reflections from the skin or other metal components of aircraft.
The second system is the secondary surveillance radar, or SSR. The SSR utilizes a pair of antenna systems, one with an omnidirectional pattern, and the other with a highly directional pattern. The directional antenna is typically fitted to the PSR antenna, so that they point in the same direction as the antennas rotate. The omnidirectional antenna need not rotate, but must be mounted close by.
The SSR repetitively transmits interrogations as the rotating radar scans the sky. The interrogation specifies what type of information a replying transponder should send by using a system of modes. There have been a number of modes used historically, but three are in common use today: mode A (also called mode 3/A), mode C, and mode 2. Mode 3/A is used to identify the aircraft amongst the other aircraft in the radar's coverage area. Mode C is used to request an aircraft's altitude, and mode 2 is used to identify military aircraft.
Neither Mode 4 nor mode S are part of the ATCRBS system but use the same transmit and receive hardware. Mode 4 is used by military aircraft for the Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) system. Mode S is a discrete selective interrogation rather than a general broadcast, that facilitates TCAS for civil aircraft. Mode S transponders ignore interrogations not addressed with their unique identity code, reducing channel congestion. At a typical SSR radar installation, ATCRBS, IFF, and mode S interrogations will all be transmitted in an interlaced fashion.
Returns from both radars at the ground station are transmitted to the ATC facility using a microwave link, a coaxial link, or (with newer radars) a digitizer and a modem. Once received at the ATC facility, a computer system known as a radar data processor associates the reply information with the proper primary target and displays it next to the target on the radar scope.
[edit] Airbourne equipment
The equipment installed in the aircraft is considerably simpler, consisting of the transponder itself, usually mounted in the instrument panel or avionics rack, and a small L band UHF antenna, mounted on the bottom of the fuselage.
Typical installations also include an altitude encoder, which is a small device connected to both the transponder and the aircraft's static system. It provides the aircraft's pressure altitude to the transponder, so that it may relay the information to the ATC facility.
The transponder has a small required set of controls and is simple to operate. It has a method to enter the four-digit transponder code, also known as a beacon code or squawk code, and a control to transmit an ident, which is done at the controller's request. Transponders typically have 4 operating modes: Off, Standby, On (Mode-A), and Alt (Mode-C). On and Alt mode differ only in that the On mode inhibits transmitting any altitude information. Standby mode allows the unit to remain powered and warmed up but inhibits any replies, since many transponders incorporate transmitters which must be warmed up before they will function.
[edit] Theory of operation
The steps involved in performing an ATCRBS interrogation are as follows: First, the ATCRBS interrogator periodically interrogates aircraft on a frequency of 1,030 MHz. This is done through a rotating or scanning antenna at the radar's assigned Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF). Interrogations are typically performed at 450 - 120 interrogations/second. Once an interrogation has been transmitted, it travels through space in the direction the antenna is pointing at the speed of light until an aircraft is reached. When the aircraft receives the interrogation, the aircraft transponder will send a reply after a 3.0μs delay indicating the requested information. The interrogator's processor will then decode the reply and identify the aircraft. The range of the aircraft is determined from the delay between the reply and the interrogation. The azimuth of the aircraft is determined from the direction the antenna is pointing when the reply was received.
[edit] The interrogation
Interrogations consist of two pulses, 0.8μs in duration, referred to as P1 and P3. The timing between these pulses determines the mode of the interrogation, and thus what the nature of the reply should be.
Mode 3/A uses a spacing of 8.0μs, and is used to request the beacon code, which was assigned to the aircraft by the controller to identify it. Mode C uses a spacing of 21μs, and requests the aircraft's pressure altitude, provided by the altitude encoder. Mode 2 uses a spacing of 5μs and requests the aircraft to transmit its Military identification code. The latter is only assigned to Military aircraft and so only a small percentage of aircraft actually reply to a mode 2 interrogation.
[edit] The reply
Replies to interrogations consist of 15 time slots, each 1.45μs in width. The reply is encoded by the presence or absence of a 0.45μs pulse in each slot. These are labeled as follows:
F1 C1 A1 C2 A2 C4 A4 X B1 D1 B2 D2 B4 D4 F2 SPI
The F1 and F2 pulses are framing pulses, and are always transmitted by the aircraft transponder. They are used by the interrogator to identify legitimate replies. These are spaced 20.3μs apart.
The A4, A2, A1, B4, B2, B1, C4, C2, C1, D4, D2, D1 pulses constitute the "information" contained in the reply. These bits are used in different ways for each interrogation mode.
For mode A, each digit in the transponder code (A, B, C, or D) may be a number from zero to seven. These octal digits are transmitted as groups of three pulses each, the A slots reserved for the first digit, B for the second, and so on.
In a mode C reply, the altitude is encoded by a Gillham interface, which uses gray code. The Gillham interface is capable of representing a wide range of altitudes, in 100-foot increments. The altitude transmitted is pressure altitude, and corrected for altimeter setting at the ATC facility.
In a mode 2 reply, the information is similar to the mode A reply in that there are 4 digits transmitted between 0 and 7. The mode 2 reply differs from the mode A reply in that the transmitted code is assigned by a military air traffic controller, not a civilian air traffic controller.
The X bit is currently only used for test targets. This bit was originally transmitted by BOMARC missiles that were used as air launched test targets.
The SPI pulse is positioned 4.35μs past the F2 pulse and is used as a "Special Identification Pulse". The SPI pulse is turned on by the ident control on the transponder in the aircraft cockpit when requested by air traffic control. If there are two aircraft with the same mode A code in the same vicinity, the air traffic controller can request the SPI bit be turned on (by requesting that the pilot "squawk ident") so that the controller can separate them. This can occasionally occur when an aircraft moves from one air traffic control area to another.
[edit] Side lobe suppression
The SSR's directional antenna is never perfect; inevitably it will "leak" lower levels of RF energy in off-axis directions. These are known as side lobes. When aircraft are close to the ground station, the side lobe signals are often strong enough to elicit a reply from their transponders when the antenna is not pointing at them. This can cause ghosting, where an aircraft's target may appear in more than one location on the radar scope. In extreme cases, an effect known as ring-around occurs, where the transponder replies in such excess that the target is distorted into an arc or circle centered on the radar site.
To combat these effects, side lobe suppression (SLS) is used. SLS employs a third pulse, P2, spaced 2μs after P1. This pulse is transmitted from the omnidirectional antenna at the ground station, rather than from the directional antenna. The power output from this antenna is calibrated so that, when received by an aircraft, the P2 pulse is stronger than either P1 or P3, except when the directional antenna is pointing directly at the aircraft. By comparing the relative strengths of P2 and P1, transponders can determine whether or not the antenna was pointing at the aircraft when the interrogation was received.
That was an earlier version of TSO C74c (see the current version in the below reference Minimum performance standards for ATCRBS transponders in the US):
To combat these effects more recently, side lobe suppression (SLS) is still used, but differently. The new and improved SLS employs a third pulse, spaced 2μs either before P3 (a new P2 position) or after P3 (which should be called P4 and appears in the Mode S radar and TCAS specifications). This pulse is transmitted from the directional antenna at the ground station, and the power output of this pulse is the same strength as the P1 and P3 pulses. The action to be taken is specified in the new and improved C74c as:
2.6 Decoding Performance.
c. Side-lobe Suppression. The transponder must be suppressed for a period of 35 ±10 microseconds following receipt of a pulse pair of proper spacing and suppression action must be capable of being reinitiated for the full duration within 2 microseconds after the end of any suppression period. The transponder must be suppressed with a 99 percent efficiency over a received signal amplitude range between 3 db above minimum triggering level and 50 db above that level and upon receipt of properly spaced interrogations when the received amplitude of P2 is equal to or in excess of the received amplitude of P1 and spaced 2.0 ±0.15 microsecond from P3.
Any requirement at the transponder to detect and act upon a P2 pulse 2μs after P1 has been removed from the new and improved TSO C74c specification.
Most "modern" transponders (manufactured since 1973) have an "SLS" circuit which suppresses reply on receipt of any two pulses in any interrogation spaced 2.0 microseconds apart that are above the MTL Minimum Triggering Level threshold of the receiver amplitude descriminator (P1->P2 or P2->P3 or P3->P4). This approach was used to comply with the original C74c and but also complies with the provisions of the new and improved C74c.
The FAA refers to the non-responsiveness of new and improved TSO C74c compliant transponders to Mode S compatible radars and TCAS as "The Terra Problem", and has issued ADs Airworthiness Directives against various transponder manufacturers, over the years, at various times on no predictable schedule. The ghosting and ring around problems have reoccurred on the more modern radars.
To combat these effects most recently, great emphasis is placed upon software solutions. It is highly likely that one of those software algorithms was the proximate cause of a mid-air collision recently, as one airplane was reported at showing its altitude as the pre-flight paper filed flight plan, and not the altitude assigned by the ATC controller (see the reports and observations contained in the below reference ATC Controlled Airplane Passenger Study of how radar worked).
See the reference section below for Errors in performance standards for ATCRBS transponders in the US.
See the reference section below for FAA Technician Study of in-situ transponders.
[edit] Radar display
The beacon code and altitude were historically displayed verbatim on the radar scope next to the target, however modernization has extended the radar data processor with a flight data processor, or FDP. The FDP automatically assigns beacon codes to flight plans, and when that beacon code is received from an aircraft, the computer can associate it with flight plan information to display immediately useful data, such as aircraft callsign, the aircraft's next navigational fix, assigned and current altitude, etc. near the target in a data block.
[edit] Mode S
Mode S, or mode select, despite also being called a mode, is actually a radically improved system intended to replace ATCRBS altogether. A few countries have mandated mode S, and many other countries, including the United States, have begun phasing out ATCRBS in favor of this system. Mode S is designed to fully interface with ATCRBS systems: mode S SSRs can interrogate ATCRBS transponders, and mode S transponders will reply to older ATCRBS interrogations.
Mode S, or mode select, despite also being called a transponder radar system replacement for ATCRBS, is actually a data packet protocol which can be used to augment ATCRBS transponder positioning equipment (radar and TCAS). A few countries are studying mode S, utilizing the AIS-P protocol enhancement for non-interfering statement of position and velocity by the ATCRBS transponder without interrogation. Mode S is designed to fully interface with ATCRBS systems: mode S SSRs can interrogate ATCRBS transponders, and AIS-P transponders will also reply to older ATCRBS and TCAS interrogations.
[edit] Frequency Congestion, FRUIT
Mode S was developed as a solution to frequency congestion on 1,090MHz. The high coverage of radar service available today means that some radar sites receive transponder replies from interrogations that were initiated by other nearby radar sites. This results in FRUIT, or False Replies Uncorrelated In Time, which is the reception of replies at a ground station that do not correspond with an interrogation. This problem has worsened with the increasing prevalence of technologies like TCAS, in which individual aircraft interrogate one another to avoid collisions. Finally, technology improvements have made transponders increasingly affordable such that today almost all aircraft are equipped with them. As a result, the sheer number of aircraft replying to SSRs has increased.
[edit] Mode S as a Congestion Solution
Mode S attempts to reduce these problems by assigning aircraft a permanent mode S address, derived from the aircraft's internationally assigned registration number. It then provides a mechanism by which an aircraft can be selected, or interrogated such that no other aircraft reply.
The system also has provisions for transferring arbitrary data both to and from a transponder. This aspect of mode S makes it a building block for many other technologies, such as TCAS 2, Traffic Information Service (TIS), and Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast.
One of those system provisions is [AIS-P] for transferring only position and velocity information from a transponder, thereby eliminating the issues of limited system capacity. This Mode S data packet reduces those problems by not assigning aircraft an address, similar to the observation that avoiding a collision with a ground vehicle does not require the prerequisite of reading its license plate number. It then provides a mechanism by which an aircraft can be observed without interrogation through a simple receiver, thereby eliminating the issues of packet collision. Because of the total elimination of unnecessary multiple packet messages, and unnecessary repeating of messages, the system capacity and reliability of the AIS-P system provision is unmatchable.
[edit] References
- The Story of Mode S: An Air Traffic Control Data Link Technology - Story of the development of Mode S at MIT's Lincoln Laboratory
- EUROCONTROL Mode S & ACAS Programme - Home page for the European Mode S & ACAS implementation coordination program
- FAA TSO C74c - Minimum performance standards for ATCRBS transponders in the US
- FAA TSO C74c - Errors in performance standards for ATCRBS transponders in the US
- FAA Technician Study of in-situ transponders
- FAA Controller Study of how his radar works
- ATC Controlled Airplane Passenger Study of how radar worked
- The Story of Mode S AIS-P: An Air Traffic Control Positioning Technology Augmentation - Story of the development of AIS-P at the TailLight Consortium
- AlliedSignal Aerospace (1996) Bendix/King KT76A/78A ATCRBS Transponder Maintenance Manual. (Rev. 6)
