Critical thinking

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Critical thinking is an on-going concern with the problems inherent in human thinking. It leads to the historical art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it. It includes, but is not exhausted by the mental process of analyzing or evaluating information, particularly statements or propositions that people have offered as true. It includes, but is not limited to, a process of reflecting upon the meaning of statements, examining the offered evidence and reasoning, and forming judgments about the facts.

Critical thinkers can gather such information from reflection, observation, experience, reasoning, and/or reading, writing, speaking and listening. Critical thinking has its basis in intellectual criteria that go beyond subject-matter divisions and which include: clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, significance, fairness.

1 Overview
2 What is and is not universal in critical thinking
3 The Uses of critical thinking
4 The affective dimension of critical thinking
5 Overcoming bias
6 Critical thinking in the classroom
7 Reaching a conclusion
8 Common concepts used in critical thinking activities
9 Quotation
10 See also
11 References
12 External links

[edit] Overview

Within the framework of scientific skepticism, the process of critical thinking involves acquiring information and evaluating it to reach a well-justified conclusion or answer. Part of critical thinking comprises informal logic. However, a large part of critical thinking goes beyond informal logic and includes assessment of beliefs and identification of prejudice, bias, propaganda, self-deception, distortion, misinformation, etc. Given research in cognitive psychology, some educators believe that schools should focus more on teaching their students critical thinking skills, intellectual standards, and cultivating intellectual traits (such as intellectual humility, intellectual empathy, intellectual integrity, and fair-mindedness) than on memorizing facts by rote learning.

As defined in A Greek-English Lexicon the verb krino- means to choose, decide or judge. Hence a krites is a discerner, judge or arbiter. Those who are kritikos have the ability to discern or decide.

The word krino- also means to separate (winnow) the wheat from the chaff or that which has worth from that which does not.

Critical thinking is very important, as it allows purposes, questions, information, inferences, concepts, assumptions, implications, points of view, beliefs, and situations to be analyzed, evaluated and restructured, decreasing the risk of acting on a false premise. The loss of this faculty through injury, intoxication, denial, narrow-mindedness or subversion can lead to a greater risk of one making a fatal error.

However, even with the use of critical thinking skills, mistakes can happen due to a thinker's egocentrism or sociocentrism or failure to be in possession of the full facts. Plus there is always the possibility of inadvertent human error.

Universal concepts and principles of critical thinking are contextualized in virtually all human disciplines and situations. It forms, therefore, a system of related, and overlapping, modes of thought such as anthropological thinking, sociological thinking, historical thinking, political thinking, psychological thinking, philosophical thinking, mathematical thinking, chemical thinking, biological thinking, ecological thinking, legal thinking, ethical thinking, musical thinking, engineer, business person, etc. In other words, critical thinking consists in both universal and subject-specific concepts and principles.

It could be argued that thinking like a painter, sculptor or designer are modes of thought that are not overlapped with critical thinking, as they are creative modes of thought that require you not to judge, but make something that is to be judged.

One can regard critical thinking as involving two aspects:

a set of cognitive skills, intellectual standards, and traits of mind
the ability and intellectual commitment to use those structures to improve thinking and guide behavior.

Critical thinking does not include simply the acquisition and retention of information, or the possession of a skill-set which one does not use regularly; nor does critical thinking merely exercise skills without acceptance of the results.

To be a critical thinker, one has to grasp what is universal in thinking. "For example, whenever we think we think for a purpose, within a point of view, based on assumptions, leading to implications and consequences. We use data, facts, and experiences, to make inferences and judgments, based on concepts and theories, to answer a question, solve a problem or resolve and issue." (The Miniature Guide to Analytic Thinking, 2003) To think well, we must think clearly, accurately, precisely, relevantly, deeply, broadly, logically, and fairly. At the same time, these universals cannot be applied to particular forms of thought-for example, say historical thought-without contextualization, without thinking through the logic of that particular form of thought. Thus historiography sheds light on the application of the universal principles of critical thinking to historical thought.

[edit] What is and is not universal in critical thinking

Critical thinking is based on concepts and principles. It has a purpose, raises particular questions, accesses information, makes inferences, utilizes concepts, makes assumptions, generates implications, embodies a point of view. Nevertheless there is no pre-designed sequence of thought, or method, that can be said to apply across all domains of thought. There are, in other words, universal critical concepts, values, and principles, but not universal methods and procedures. Critical thinking is principle but not procedure based.

Critical thinking does not assure that one will reach either the truth or correct conclusions. First, one may not have all the relevant information; indeed, important information may remain undiscovered, or the information may not even be knowable. Furthermore, one may make unjustified inferences, use inappropriate concepts, fail to notice important implications, use a narrow or unfair point of view. One may be a victim of self-delusion, egocentricity or sociocentricity, or closed-mindedness. One's thinking may be unclear, inaccurate, imprecise, irrelevant, narrow, shallow, illogical, or trivial. One may be intellectually arrogant, intellectually lazy, or intellectually hypocritical. These are some of the ways that human thinking can be flawed. Further information can be found in the Thinker's Guide series by Richard Paul and Linda Elder.

Critical thinking may be distinguished, but not separated, from feeling. Refusal to recognize their interaction in real life leads to various forms of self-deception, individually and socially; and at the left, right, and mainstream of economic, political, and religious issues. Further analysis and resources about this interaction may be found in Roderick Hindery (2001): Indoctrination and Self-deception or Free and Critical Thought.

[edit] The Uses of critical thinking

Critical thinking is important wherever the quality of human thinking significantly impacts the quality of life (of any sentient creature). For example, success in human life is tied to success in learning. At the same time, every phase in the learning process is tied to critical thinking. Thus, reading, writing, speaking, and listening can all be done critically or uncritically. Critical thinking is crucial to becoming a close reader and a substantive writer. Critical thinking is “a way of taking up the problems of life.” (William Graham Sumner, Folkways, 1906)

Irrespective of the sphere of thought, “a well cultivated critical thinker":

raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;
gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively
comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.

(Paul, R. and Elder, 2006)

[edit] The affective dimension of critical thinking

Critical thinking may be distinguished, but not separated, from emotions, desires, and traits of mind. Failure to recognize the relationship between thinking, feeling, wanting, and traits of mind can easily lead to various forms of self-deception, both individually and collectively. When persons possess intellectual skills alone, without the intellectual traits of mind, sophistic or “weak sense critical thinking” results. Fair-minded or “strong sense critical thinking” requires intellectual humility, intellectual empathy, intellectual integrity, intellectual perseverance, intellectual integrity, confidence in reason, intellectual courage, intellectual autonomy, and other intellectual traits. Thus, critical thinking without essential intellectual traits often results in clever, but manipulative, often unethical, thought. In short, the sophist, the con artist, the manipulator often uses an intellectually defective but effective form of thought---serving unethical purposes.

Further analysis and resources about the interaction between thought and emotions may be found in Roderick Hindery (2001): Indoctrination and Self-deception or Free and Critical Thought and in Paul and Elder (2004): The Human Mind.

[edit] Overcoming bias

There is no simple way to reduce one's bias. There are, however, a network of ways that one can begin to do so. The most important require developing one's intellectual empathy and ppintellectual humility]]. The first requires extensive experience in entering and accurately constructing points of view toward which one has negative feelings. The second requires extensive experience in identifying the extent of one's own ignorance in a wide variety of subjects (ignorance whose admission leads one to say, "I thought I knew, but I merely believed"). One becomes less biased and more broad-minded when one becomes more intellectually empathic and intellectually humble, and that time, deliberate practice and commitment. It involves considerable personal and intellectual development.

To develop one's critical thinking abilities, one should learn the art of suspending judgment (for example, when reading a novel, watching a movie, engaging in dialogical or dialectical reasoning). Ways of doing this include adopting a perceptive rather than judgmental orientation; that is, avoiding moving from perception to judgment as one applies critical thinking to an issue.

One should become aware of one's own fallibility by:

accepting that everyone has subconscious biases, and accordingly questioning any reflexive judgments;
adopting an egoless and, indeed, humble stance
recalling previous beliefs that one once held strongly but now rejects
realizing one still has numerous blind spots, despite the foregoing

[edit] Critical thinking in the classroom

The key to seeing the significance of critical thinking in the classroom is in understanding the significance of critical thinking in learning. To learn is to think. To think poorly is to learn poorly. To think well is to learn well. All content, to be learned, must be intellectually constructed. To learn the content of history, I must engage myself in the process of thinking historically.

There are two phases to the learning of content. The first occurs when learners construct in their minds the basic ideas, principles, theories that are inherent in that content. The second occurs when learners effectively use those ideas, principles, and theories as they become relevant in learners’ lives. Good teachers cultivate critical thinking (intellectually engaged thinking) at every stage of learning. This process of intellectual engagement is at the heart of the Oxford and Cambridge tutorials. The tutor questions the students, often in a Socratic manner. Here are some typical Socratic questions:

What do you mean by_______________?
How did you come to that conclusion?
What was said in the text?
What is the source of your information?
What is the source of information in the report?
What assumption has led you to that conclusion?
Suppose you are wrong? What are the implications?
Why did you make that inference? Is another one more consistent with the data?
Why is this issue significant?
How do I know that what you are saying is true?
What is an alternate explanation for this phenomenon?

Of course, there are many other possible Socratic questions. The key is that the teacher who fosters critical thinking fosters reflectiveness in students by asking questions that stimulate thinking essential to the construction of knowledge.

Each discipline adapts its use of critical thinking concepts and principles. The core concepts are always there, but they are embedded in subject specific content. In sound instruction intellectual engagement is central. All students must do their own thinking, their own construction of knowledge. Good teachers recognize this and therefore focus on the questions, readings, activities that stimulate the mind to take ownership of key concepts and principles underlying the subject.

In the UK school system, the syllabus offers Critical thinking as a subject which 16-18 year olds can take as an A-Level. Under the OCR exam board, students can sit two exam papers: "Credibility of Evidence" and "Assessing/Developing Argument". The exam tests candidates not on particular information they have learned during the course, but on their ability to think critically about, and analyse, arguments on their deductive or inductive validity. The full advanced GCE is now available and, though very challenging, is extremely useful for degree courses in politics, philosophy, history or theology (to name but a few), providing the skills required for critical analysis that are useful, for example, in biblical study.

[edit] Reaching a conclusion

One useful perspective in critical thinking is to employ Occam's Razor. Also called the "principle of parsimony," Occam's razor requires that one not make more assumptions than necessary. In other words, the simplest solution is likely the best. Given the nature of the process, critical thinking is never final. One arrives at a tentative conclusion, given the evidence and based on an evaluation. However, the conclusion must always remain subject to further evaluation if new information comes to hand.

[edit] Common concepts used in critical thinking activities

The following concepts are crucial to all critical thinking, since they are the structures that underlie all thinking:

Purpose for thinking: goal, objective
Question at issue: the problem
Concepts: theories, definitions, axioms, laws, principles, models
Assumptions: presuppositions, taken for granted
Information: data, facts, observations, experiences
Interpretations and inferences: conclusions, solutions
Points of view: frame of reference, perspective, orientation
Consequences and implications

The question can then be raised, "What appropriate intellectual standards do students need to assess the 'parts' of their thinking?" There are many standards appropriate to the assessment of thinking as it might occur in this or that context, but some standards are virtually universal (that is, applicable to all thinking): clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, depth, breadth, and logic.

How well a student is reasoning depends on how well he/she applies these universal standards to the elements (or parts) of thinking.

What follows are some guidelines helpful to students as they work toward developing their reasoning abilities:

1. All reasoning has a PURPOSE:

Take time to state your purpose clearly
Distinguish your purpose from related purposes
Check periodically to be sure you are still on target
Choose significant and realistic purposes

2. All reasoning is an attempt to FIGURE SOMETHING OUT, TO SETTLE SOME QUESTION, TO SOLVE SOME PROBLEM:

Take time to clearly and precisely state the question at issue
Express the question in several ways to clarify its meaning and scope
Break the question into sub questions
Identify if the question has one right answer, is a matter of opinion, or requires reasoning from more than one point of view

3. All reasoning is based on ASSUMPTIONS:

Clearly identify your assumptions and determine whether they are justifiable
Consider how your assumptions are shaping your point of view

4. All reasoning is done from some POINT OF VIEW:

Identify your point of view
Seek other points of view and identify their strengths as well as weaknesses
Strive to be fair-minded in evaluating all points of view

5. All reasoning is based on DATA, INFORMATION and EVIDENCE:

Restrict your claims to those supported by the data you have
Search for information that opposes your position as well as information that supports it
Make sure that all information used is clear, accurate, and relevant to the question at issue
Make sure you have gathered sufficient information

6. All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, CONCEPTS and IDEAS:

Identify key concepts and explain them clearly
Consider alternative concepts or alternative definitions to concepts
Make sure you are using concepts with care and precision

7. All reasoning contains INFERENCES or INTERPRETATIONS by which we draw CONCLUSIONS and give meaning to data:

Infer only what the evidence implies
Check inferences for their consistency with each other
Identify assumptions which lead you to your inferences

8. All reasoning leads somewhere or has IMPLICATIONS and CONSEQUENCES:

Trace the implications and consequences that follow from your reasoning
Search for negative as well as positive implications
Consider all possible consequences

(Elder, L. and Paul, R., (June 1996). Foundation For Critical Thinking, Online at website: www.criticalthinking.org)

[edit] Quotation

William Graham Sumner offers a useful summary of critical thinking:

Critical thinking is the examination and test of propositions of any kind which are offered for acceptance, in order to find out whether they correspond to reality or not. The critical faculty is a product of education and training. It is a mental habit and power. It is a prime condition of human welfare that men and women should be trained in it. It is our only guarantee against delusion, deception, superstition, and misapprehension of ourselves and our earthly circumstances.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

Vincent F. Hendricks, Thought 2 Talk: A Crash Course in Reflection and Expression, New York: Automatic Press / VIP, 2005, ISBN 87-991013-7-8
Richard Paul and Linda Elder 2002. Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Professional and Personal Life. Published by Financial Times Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-064760-8.
Richard Paul and Linda Elder, 2003. The Miniature Guide to Analytic Thinking. Published by the Foundation for Critical Thinking. ISBN 0-944583-19-9
Linda Elder and Richard Paul, 2004. The Miniature Guide to the Human Mind. Dillon Beach: Foundation for Critical Thinking Press.
Richard Paul and Linda Elder, 2006. The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts & Tools. Published by the Foundation for Critical Thinking. ISBN 0-944583-10-5
Paul, R., Elder, L., and Bartell T. 1997. California Teacher Preparation for Instruction in Critical Thinking: Research Findings and Policy Recommendations. California Commission on Teacher Credentialing. Foundation for Critical Thinking, Sacramento California.
Whyte, J. 2003. Bad Thoughts - A Guide to Clear Thinking. Published by Corvo. ISBN 0-9543255-3-2.
T. Edward Damer. Attacking Faulty Reasoning, 5th Edition, Wadsworth, 2005. ISBN 0-534-60516-8
Francis Watanabe Dauer. "Critical thinking : an introduction to reasoning"