Adult learning methods
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[edit] Foundations of practice
Values are based on beliefs and lead to attitudes and adopting a philosophy, principles of practice, is sign of professional development. Lists of principles of practice abound, but selection criteria remain ambiguous. “No research has shown teachers with certain characteristics are consistently more effective that teachers with other characteristics.” (Cranton, 2002, in Galbraith, 2004. p. 40) Likewise, no research has shown that certain principles of practice are consistently more effective or appropriate.
Principles of practice are based mostly on expert opinion and experience rather than experimental validation. In addition to Galbraith, other authors also suggest principles of adult education, including Brookfield (1991), Merriam & Caffarella (1998), and Conner (2004). Principles based on research are not common. At this time, little or no evidence-based research has validated or discredited any principles. Though many lists of principles overlap, each author tends to offer unique interpretations. Such recommendations are not always widely accepted.
Practitioners have no way to evaluate the merits of each principle, since they are based on opinion, not fact. In practice, after studying various formulations of adult education principles, practitioners are encouraged to select principles that most closely match their own preferences and opinions. Selecting values according to one’s pre-existing beliefs and attitudes makes the process entirely subjective and non-developmental. Adult learners are urged to vigorously examine and challenge their pre-existing beliefs and attitudes through critical thinking. Why should practitioners do otherwise?
Despite the diversity of theories and principles espoused, experts agree that some sort of theoretical framework is essential for practitioners. However, though the choice of teaching principles remains somewhat arbitrary, choosing teaching methods and techniques is less so. The main methods of adult instruction are well known and, in some cases, supported by research. Understanding a wide range of techniques allows educators to select the method most appropriate for the circumstances.
Galbraith (2004) cites some common methods of adult instruction: lecture, discussion, demonstration and simulation, case study, critical thinking, distance learning, interactive television, online learning, learning contracts, course portfolio; forum, panel and symposium; and mentorship. (See appendix for additional instructional methods) What are the salient features of each method? How do they compare? Understanding and mastering many methods provides practitioners with a “tool box” of techniques to apply as needed. Awareness of strengths and weaknesses of each method can help them select the most appropriate method. Lecture and discussion are probably the oldest and most widely practiced methods in education, while distance learning via interactive television and the internet is comparatively new. Learning contracts, course portfolios, and mentorship offer valuable alternatives to the traditional methods. Each method has benefits and drawbacks.
[edit] Methods and Techniques
[edit] Lecture
Lecture still dominates the teaching style of many adult and higher education teachers. More educators prefer and use the lecture than other instructional method. (Darkenwald & Merriam, 1982) It provides a mostly one-way conduit for information, from the instructor to the student. For the student, lecture is a passive way of acquiring knowledge, akin to reading. This method centers on the teacher instead of the student. However, lecture can still be the most effective choice in the proper circumstances.
Lecture has many advantages. Most adults recognize and accept this method. Content can be presented clearly, precisely, and in logical order. Many adult learners prefer spoken presentations over reading the same content, even if it is available. Lecture can reach large groups, when other methods are not practical.
Though the most popular method of adult instruction, lecture is not always the best. Most theories of adult education urge a learner-centered approach, while lecture is teacher-centered. If the lecturer is not inspired and inspiring, learners may have trouble staying engaged. Farrah (in Galbraith, 2004) offers five suggestions for optimizing lectures: establish learning environment, limit the amount of information, speak clearly and slowly, use conversational tones, look at learners, move about the room somewhat, combine other instructional methods, and conclude definitively. Attention span research by Frederick (1986) and Verduin, Miller, and Green (1997), suggests that adult learners cannot process more than 15-20 minutes of lecture at a time. McLeish (1976) reported that learner interest declines after the first ten minutes and increases in the last ten minutes. Farrah reinforces the need for the lecturer to keep moving. Keeping a narrow, specific focus; using a lot of examples; and varying the class are her final recommendations.
[edit] Discussion
Discussion permits students to participate and actively engage in their learning. Unlike lectures, discussions don’t focus mainly on the teacher. The instructor does not dominate the learning situation, but instead, facilitates collaborative learning. Learner collaboration is a hallmark of adult learning according to most theories. Therefore, discussion is a mainstay of most adult educators. This method’s appeal comes from its “participatory, quasi-democratic” nature. Brookfield (in Galbraith, 2004) lauds discussion for inducing critical thinking and reflection by learners. He also notes some of its limits.
One is that discussion is not practical with more than 10 or 20 learners. Another limit is that some learners’ participation is reduced due to shyness or introversion. More confident and outspoken learners can dominate the discussion. Also, by establishing and moderating discussion themes teachers may prejudice the process, intentionally or otherwise. Brookfield offers suggestions specifically for conducting discussions: avoid standardized approaches, use varied approaches, welcome spontaneous “learning moments,” monitor group emotions and attitudes, and remain authentic. These suggestions seem appropriate to all types of education, rather than being specific recommendations for discussion.
[edit] Demonstration and simulation
Demonstration and simulation are experiential methods of instruction. Like discussion, they cast learners in more active roles than lecture. But demonstration and simulation go far beyond the verbal limits of discussion. In addition to listening and talking to others, learners simultaneously watch real-world examples and situations. Gilley (in Galbraith, 2004) claims “these two methods provide a unique type of ‘learner ownership.’” (p. 380). Experiencing an event can be far more convincing, compelling, and memorable than merely hearing about it.
Demonstrations allow learners to quickly understand complex information, compared to lecture and discussion. Demonstrations often engage several senses at once, and provide variety for learners. From nursing to auto repair, “how-to” instruction typically includes demonstrations. This method has limitations, as well. For example, classes must be relatively small. Also, the teacher must be an adept practitioner of the demonstrated behavior to ensure its proper conduct. Demonstration is less helpful in presenting intangible and complex concepts. Finally, demonstration often requires a great deal of time to design, prepare, set-up, and conduct. This method should be used selectively to achieve specific outcomes.
Simulation shares many of the same benefits and limitations as demonstration. Though simulation is an experiential method of instruction like demonstration, it goes a step further. It transforms learners from passive observers to active agents. In some cases, learners cannot achieve proficiency without simulation. For example, CPR instruction requires practice with a life-like mannequin to simulate a real victim. Computer simulations have become a favorite experiential teaching method. Simulations can be very costly and some adult are techno-phobic.
[edit] Case study
Case study is another experiential instructional method, like simulation and demonstration. In fact, case study can be considered a type of demonstration because it engages learners by bridging the gap between theory and practice. It draws on real-world examples to illustrate, for example, concepts taught by reading and lecture. Or case studies can precede instruction on principle and theory. Adult learners seek relevance and immediacy, and case studies offers actual or credible examples of situations they seek to understand and master. According to Marsick (in Galbraith, 2004), allowing adult students to draw on their own experiences or select their own case can increase the effectiveness of this method.
Case studies embody practical thinking. They also simulate real-world conditions of ambiguity and incomplete information. However, this instructional method requires instructors to be expert facilitators. Extensive preparation may also be necessary. Case studies can help adult learners become proficient in analyzing and resolving complex problems. Some fields, including law and business, emphasize this method. Otherwise, case studies are used selectively. Critical thinking
Some hold critical thinking as the summum bonum of adult education. Brookfield asserts “encouraging critical thinking is integral to the democratic process,” that critical thinking could be “a universal theory of adult learning,” and could provide a “template for adult education practice.” (in Galbraith, 2004. p.341) In general, the field of adult education regards critical thinking as central to adult learning.
Webster’s defines critical thinking as, “the mental process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information to reach an answer or conclusion.” Brookfield adopts a narrower definition, focusing on “recognizing and researching the assumptions that under gird their [adult learners’] thoughts and actions.” (p.341) He believes that critical thinking is vital for understanding the “flow of power” in daily adult life. Transformative and emancipatory learning both rely on critical thinking, as do ABE and post-secondary reasoning skills.
As an instructional method, critical thinking can take many forms. Critical reading, discussion, debate, and modeling are some ways to teach critical thinking. Of the methods discussed so far, case studies are most likely to elicit critical thinking. Ideally, all methods of instructing adults should stimulate critical thinking. However, as a teaching method, critical thinking requires intellectually sophisticated learners. Instructors also must be proficient in manipulating meta-cognitive concepts. Compared to other domains of adult learning, critical thinking is the most elusive and intangible. Perhaps this contributes to its status as the “holy grail” of adult education.
[edit] Distance learning
Distance learning’s defining characteristic is the physical separation between teacher and learner. Synchronous methods, like interactive television or real-time online conferencing, involve only this physical separation. Asynchronous methods, including correspondence courses and many online courses, entail a temporal separation as well. Internet-based adult learning is arguably the fastest growing area in adult education. Like other forms of distance education, it increases accessibility by removing barriers of distance and time. Distance education’s effectiveness has proven not significantly different than traditional, face-to-face education. Though distance education is not suitable for all types of adult learners, for some learners, distance learning can be even more appealing than traditional learning.
Distance learning requires independent, self-directed students. Learners must supply the structure and discipline for effective learning. Dependent and less-experienced learners are therefore not the best candidates for distance education. As correspondence courses wane in popularity, technological delivery methods are gaining. Technology can be very powerful, even seductive in its novelty. It can also become a barrier when not functioning properly. Some learners, especially older adults, are less comfortable with new technologies and must overcome this obstacle before they can learn effectively. Additional instructional methods
The number of adult instructional methods devised so far is not known (see Appendix B). Like education theories (Kearsley, 2007), instructional methods and practices have proliferated along with the literature. As with learning theories, there is no consensus regarding which methods are more popular or effective. The extreme variety of adult learning situations requires an equal variety of learning methods. Suitability in a specific context is the most important criteria for selecting one method over another.
Compared to instructional methods already mentioned, alternate methods are less widely used. Four of these alternate methods are learning contracts, portfolios, panels, mentorship. Each can offer specific benefits. Learning contracts allow learners to design their own course of study. Portfolios allow learners to demonstrate proficiency in subjective ways, in contrast to teacher-administered tests and standardized assessments. Portfolios also allow adult learners to define their own evaluation criteria. In the business world, creative professionals use portfolios extensively to document and demonstrate their capabilities.
Panels and symposia offer another method of adult instruction. Usually, several experts present their views and discuss subjects among themselves. As with lecture, panels relegate adult learners to a passive role, even it they are allowed to ask questions at the end of the panel discussion.
Mentoring is typically a very informal method of instruction. The instructor establishes and maintains a personal, one-to-one relationship with the learner. Mentoring is not suitable for groups, and most mentors only have time for one or a few adult learners. Though mentors can instruct in specific, practical ways, the main benefit is the emotional support and continuing motivation they provide.
Conclusion
The literature abounds with examples of instructional methods. Inventories of teaching methods often don’t distinguish between youth and adult learners. Adults and children both benefit from the selection of the best instructional method. The spectrum of teaching techniques ranges from teacher-centered to student-centered, regardless of the age or status of learners. Student age or status does not automatically suggest certain techniques, because some adult students are very dependent learners, while some young students excel at independent learning. A professional adult education practitioner must understand the value and application of a wide range of instructional methods. This knowledge will include the strengths and limitations of each technique, and knowing when and how to use a specific teaching method. A thorough, comprehensive study of instructional methods will pay dividends throughout the practitioner’s career.
[edit] Appendices
A. Principles of practice in adult education according to four experts. (Galbraith, 2004)
Knowles Establish physical and psychological climates that aid learning Involve learners in planning methods and curriculum Help learners diagnose their own needs Help them identify learning objectives Help them find and use resources to meet their goal Help them carry out learning plans Give them self-evaluations
Brookfield Adult learning is voluntary Mutual respect Learners are engaged and participate Continual cycle of learning activities Help adults reflect critically Helping to create self-directed, empowered adults is the purpose
Galbraith Should be based on a philosophy Understand variability and diversity Good psychosocial climate needed Teacher must reduce or remove obstacles to learning Challenging interactions Teach critical thinking Education should have a rationale Authenticity and credibility are essential Empathize with learners Foster independence and self-empowerment
Long Adults seek education when they need it Personal worth and dignity of each learner Adults have their own goals, desires, and expectations Adults should participate in decision-making Adults progress toward self-direction and self-responsibility Life experience influences orientation to learning Adults want to know how to use the information Resistance to change is normal Learners should feel personally secure
Some principles are shared: • Involve and engage learners in planning and decision-making. • Establish mutual trust, respect, and tolerance for diversity. • Adults want help meeting goals and applying knowledge. • Critical thinking is an important part of adult learning. • Provide a safe, comfortable physical and psycho-social environment.
Other principles are espoused by individuals: • Help learners diagnose their own needs • Help them identify learning objectives • Help them carry out learning plans • Give them self-evaluations • Continual cycle of learning activities • Should be based on a philosophy • Challenging interactions • Education should have a rationale • Authenticity and credibility are essential • Empathize with learners • Adults have their own goals, desires, and expectations • Life experience influences orientation to learning • Resistance to change is normal
B. 112 instructional methods (Saskatchewan Education, 2006) 1 Assigned Questions 2 Author's Chair 3 Balanced Literacy 4 Book Talks 5 Case Studies 6 Categorizing 7 Classroom Conversations 8 Cloze Procedure 9 Compare & Contrast 10 Computer Assisted Instruction 11 Concept Attainment 12 Concept Formation 13 Concept Maps 14 Conducting Experiments 15 Cooperative Learning 16 Creative Problem Solving 17 Debates 18 Decision-making Process 19 Demonstrations 20 Didactic Questions 21 Discussion 22 Drill & Practice 23 Essays 24 Experience Charts 25 Explicit Teaching 26 Expository, Narrative & Persuasive Writing 27 Field Observations 28 Field Trips 29 Focused Imaging 30 Games 31 Graphic Organizers 32 Guided & Assisted Reading 33 Guided & Assisted Retellings 34 Guided Reading & Thinking 35 Heterogeneous Grouping 36 Homogeneous Grouping 37 Independent Research 38 Inquiry 39 Instructional Groups 40 Interdisciplinary Approach 41 Interviewing 42 Jigsaw 43 Journal Writing 44 K-W-L 45 Laboratory Groups 46 Learning Activity Packages 47 Learning Centers 48 Learning Contracts 49 Learning Logs 50 Lecture 51 Listen & Visualize 52 Literacy Centred Instruction 53 Literature Based Instruction 54 Literature Circles 55 Mind Mapping 56 Mini Lessons 57 Miscue Analysis 58 Model Building 59 Modes of Reading 60 Multiple Intelligence 61 Narrated Reading 62 Narratives 63 Needs-based Grouping 64 Novel Studies 65 Oratory, Public Speaking and Speech Writing 66 Panels 67 Peer Partner Learning 68 Picture Books and Illustrator Studies 69 Picture Word Inductive Model (PWIM) 70 Problem Solving 71 Questioning Levels 72 Questioning Techniques 73 RAFT 74 Read & Paraphrase 75 Read & Respond 76 Read, Pause & Reflect 77 Readers' Theater 78 Reading Aloud 79 Reading for Meaning 80 Reflective Discussion 81 Reports 82 Research Projects 83 Response Journal 84 Role Playing 85 Running Record 86 Scaffolding 87 Science Fairs 88 Science Olympics 89 Self Monitoring Strategies 90 Simulations 91 Sociograms in Literature 92 Story Mapping 93 Storytelling 94 Structured Controversy 95 Structured Overview 96 Study Groups 97 Surveys 98 Synectics 99 Talking Circles 100 Team Teaching/Modeling of Instruction 101 Think, Pair, Share 102 Thinking Strategies 103 Tutorial Groups 104 Visual Imaging 105 Webbing 106 WebQuests 107 Word Walls 108 Working with Words 109 Writer's Workshop 110 Writing Conferences 111 Writing Process 112 Writing to Inform
D. A Listing of Instructional Strategies and Methods (Saskatchewan Education, 2006)
Direct Instruction
• Structured Overview • Lecture • Explicit Teaching • Drill & Practice • Compare & Contrast • Didactic Questions • Demonstrations • Guided & Shared - reading, listening, viewing, thinking
Interactive Instruction
• Debates • Role Playing • Panels • Brainstorming • Peer Partner Learning • Discussion • Laboratory Groups • Think, Pair, Share • Cooperative Learning Groups • Jigsaw • Problem Solving • Structured Controversy • Tutorial Groups • Interviewing • Conferencing
Indirect Instruction
• Problem Solving • Case Studies • Reading for Meaning • Inquiry • Reflective Discussion • Writing to Inform • Concept Formation • Concept Mapping • Concept Attainment • Cloze Procedure
Independent Study
• Essays • Computer Assisted Instruction • Journals • Learning Logs • Reports • Learning Activity Packages • Correspondence Lessons • Learning Contracts • Homework • Research Projects • Assigned Questions • Learning Centers
Experiential Learning
• Field Trips • Narratives • Conducting Experiments • Simulations • Games • Storytelling • Focused Imaging • Field Observations • Role-playing • Synetics • Model Building • Surveys
Instructional Skills
• Explaining • Demonstrating • Questioning • Questioning Technique • Wait Time • Levels of Questions
[edit] Sources
Brookfield, S. (1991). Understanding and facilitating adult learning: a comprehensive analysis of principles and effective practices. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Conner, M. L. (2004). How adults learn. Ageless Learner. Retrieved electronically 6/18/16 from http://agelesslearner.com/intros/adultlearning.html .
Cranton, P. (2002). Becoming an authentic teacher in higher education. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company.
Critical thinking. (n.d.). Webster's New Millennium™ Dictionary of English, Preview Edition (v 0.9.6). Retrieved 2/10/07 from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/critical thinking.
Darkenwarld, G.G. & Merriam, S.B. (1982). Adult education: foundations of practice. New York: Harper & Row.
Frederick, P.J. (1986). The lively lecture- 8 variations. College Teaching, 34(2), pp. 43-50.
Galbraith, M.W. (2004). Adult learning methods. 3rd edition. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company.
Kearsley, G. (2007). Theory into practice. Retrieve 2/10/07 from http://tip.psychology.org/.
McLeish, J. (1976). The lecture method. In Gage, N.L., ed. The psychology of teaching methods. Pp. 252-301. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Merriam, S.B. & Caffarella, R.S. (1998). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide (2nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Saskatchewan Education. (2006.) Instructional Approaches: A Framework for Professional Practice. Regina, SK: Saskatchewan Education. Retrieved 2/8/07 from http://www.sasked.gov.sk.ca/docs/policy/approach/copyright.html
Verduin, Jr., J.R., Miller, H.G., & Greer, C.E. (1997). Adults teaching adults. Austin: Learning Concepts.
