Battle of Kosovo

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This page is about the Battle of Kosovo of 1389; for other battles, see Battle of Kosovo (disambiguation).

Battle of Kosovo
Part of the Ottoman wars in Europe
Battle on Kosovo, by Adam Stefanović, oil, 1870
Date June 15, 1389 (Julian calendar) Location Kosovo Field, Serbia Result Ottoman victory[1][2][3]
Combatants
Ottoman Empire	Serbia
Commanders
Murad I †, Bayezid I, Yakub	Lazar Hrebeljanović †, Vuk Branković, Vlatko Vuković
Strength
~ 27,000-40,000	~ 12,000-30,000[4][5][6][7]
Casualties
Unknown	Heavy

The Battle of Kosovo (or Battle of Amselfeld; Serbian Cyrillic: Косовски бој or Бој на Косову, see also names in other languages) was fought on St Vitus' Day (June 15, now celebrated on 28) 1389 between the coalition of Serb lords and the Ottoman Empire.

Reliable historical accounts of this battle are scarce, however a critical examination of them and comparison with similar contemporary battles (such as the Battle of Angora or Nikopolis) enables a reliable reconstruction.^[8]

Contents 1 Preparations 1.1 Geopolitical Situation 1.2 Details: Eastern Ottoman Side 1.3 Details: Western Tvrtko's Side 1.4 Army movement 1.5 Army composition 2 The battle 2.1 Troop disposition 2.2 Start 2.3 Murad's death 2.4 Turkish counterattack 2.5 The outcome 3 Warning 4 Aftermath 5 Name in different languages 6 References 7 External links

[edit] Preparations

Inserts from "The Longest Days of 1389 and the Battles of Kosovo", with permission.^{[attribution needed]}

[edit] Geopolitical Situation

Many sources portrait the 1389 Battle of Kosovo as the cataclysmic clash between Muslims and Christians. However, facts strongly disclaim those views. Wars have always been an extremly expensive business. In 1389, when majority of population lived of land and respective agricultural products, army potentials were strongly correlated to the sizes of respective countries. See also for example Historical Map of Europe around 1400.

Around 1389 Catholics were in the middle of Great Western Schism - two pretenders popes were fuelling civil wars. The supremacy of Patriarch of Constantinople was rather limited. The area of Kosovo Polje was under jurisdiction of Patriarch of Peć; the area just north was ruled by the splinter group of Pomoravlje, who acknowledged the supremacy of Patriarch of Constantinople. West, in Bosnia, there was a strong influence of Bosnian Church with its followers known as Bogomils. However, most of the Slavonic population was of pagan believes. As accomplished farmers, they dedicated the astronomical first day of summer to their chief diety Svantovid. The churchmen translated Svantovid into Svet Vid, Saint Vitus, and fixed his slava, i.e., the celebration, on incorrect date of June 15 of Julian Calendar, Vidovdan, which was recently converted into again incorrect date of June 28 of Gregorian Calendar.

Further north from Kosovo Polje were lands under Hungarian crown, emerging from civil wars between three main parties, including ones of a teenager legal Rex Hungaria Queen Mary of Hungary and her consort and extranged husband, unexperienced future Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, who, during Mary's captivity, proclaimed himself the King, i.e., Rex Hungaria. On their northern and eastern border emerged a powerhouse of Poland-Lituania of Mary's younger sister a teenager Jadwiga, Rex Polonia, and her experienced husband Jogailla.

West from Kosovo Polje were lands, legally Mary's, but under control of her maternal uncle and confidant, probably even the legal heir, King Tvrtko I Kotromanić. The Kosovo Polje itself, and the lands towards south were under control of Tvrtko's vassals Vuk Branković and Đurađ II Stratimirović Balšić, respectively.

The lands east of Kosovo Polje were under control of Ottoman nominal vassals, from north to south: Ivan Stratsimir, the ruler of the Principality of Vidin, Ivan Šišman of Tarnovo Bulgaria, Kostadin Bey of Velbužd (Kyustendil) and Serres, a.k.a Konstantin Dejanović Dragaš, and Marko Bey, a.k.a (Crown Prince) Kraljević Marko Mrnjavčević - the first two not firmly under Ottoman control.

[edit] Details: Eastern Ottoman Side

Gazi Murad I Bey, Murad Hüdavendigar, the first among equals, was known as a modest and thoughtful ruler. He, his commanders, Grand Vizier, and the government, made years long preparations for this battle. This includes military and political concessions in the Asia Minor during the 1387-1389; the peace treaties with Venice and Genoa, from whom he rented about 5 000 warriors_mercenaries, mostly foot archers - bowmen; he rented a few thousand Catalans and Navarrese who occupied_ruled portions of Southern Greece and Northern Albania; most importantly, Murad was shielded by fierce, 5 000 men strong Janissary corps. He brought from Asia Minor into Europe 15 000 - 20 000 troops, his own and of his Asian vassals; his Byzantine in-laws were obliged to assemble a few thousand troops as well. In the spring of 1389, most of these troops converged toward Plovdiv Bulgaria. Murad's in-law and trusted friend Kostadin Bey of Velbužd (Kyustendil) and Serres, a.k.a Konstantin Dejanović Dragaš, the grandson of Stefan Dečanski Nemanjić, was the chief supplier of provisions and security to these army units while on their way from Plovdiv to Kosovo Polje.

In Europe, Ottomans were having in field two semi-independent armies: one under Lala Timurtaş Paşa - beylerbey of Rumelia, Bayezid's tutor and Murad's confidant, and the other army under the most able tactician, experienced and aged, Gazi Evrenos (Branas, Vraneš) Bey. Each of these two men could, at best, assemble a force of 15 000 - 20 000 men.

In 1385 Sofia was taken by Ottomans. In 1386 Timurtaş's men, lead by his son Yahşi Bey, stormed the city and fortress of Niš, which was the key fortress for eventual control of the eastern entrances toward Novo Brdo and Kosovo Polje; on this occasion Timurtaş units might have secured Kruševac and Ravanica as well; Kruševac is located more than 100 km north of Priština, about 120 km of road distance, and was of little strategic importance. After numerous attempts, in 1387, while trying a breaktrough into Malo Kosovo Polje, Timurtaş's men, about 15 000 - 20 000 strong, were stopped at Pločnik near Toplica river by a combined force of peoples from Pomoravlje, Kosovo i Metohija, Vidin, Hungary and Bosnia, under the leadership of King Tvrtko's long-time friend and in-law Veliki Vojvoda (Commander-in-Chief) Vlatko Vuković (more precisely Vlkoslavić > Vukoslavić) Kosača.

On 1385.09.18, in the Battle of Savra Field near Vijose River in Albania, Ottomans defeated and killed Balša II and his in-law Ivaniš Mrnjavčević, the younger brother of Murat's vassal Marko Bey, a.k.a (Crown Prince) Kraljević Marko Mrnjavčević. In the spring of 1387 Ottomans enterred Thessalonike without a fight, replacing there their in-law and vassal Manuel II Palaeologos. On 1388.08.27 Ottoman, Albanian and Balšić forces under Şahin Paşa of Kavalla, 15 000 - 20 000 men strong, while trying a breaktrough into Gacko Polje, were ambushed near Bileća (220 km west of Priština) by Croat and Bosnian forces under the leadership of Vlatko Vuković Kosača; Đurađ II Stratimirović Balšić, Lazar's son-in-law, was compeled to sign a number of friendly yet vassal contracts with King Tvrtko; militarily, his lands were temporarily controlled by their northern neighbor Vlatko Vuković Kosača. Đurađ II temporarily retired to Ulcinj, while his troops participated in the battle. Vuk Branković, his brother-in-law Đurađ II, and Đurađ's in-law Andrijaš Mrnjavčević, the younger brother of Marko Bey, who owned the lands around Skopje, joined the forces on the eve of the battle.

Between 1386-1389 numerous and bloody battles where fought for the control of the areas south of Danube river, between its delta and upstream up to the river of Velika Morava. In September of 1386 the ruler of Wallachia (Kara Eflak) Dan I was killed by his southern neighbor Ivan Šišman of Trnovo Bulgaria; Dan was succeeded by his younger brother Mircea cel Bătrân; both men were the grandsons of Tvrtko's aunt Marija. Ivan Šišman was Murad's brother-in-law, Lazar's son-in-law, and Bayezid's (future?) brother-in-law. East of Wallachia was a friendly neighbor Petru I Musat, Bogdan's son-in-law, ruler of Moldavia (Bogdanistan), who, in 1387.09, acknowledged suzereinty of King Jogailla and his wife Jadwiga, Rex Poloniae (Poland, Lahistan) in her own rights. Ottomans eventually secured the lands of Trnovo Bulgaria and Dobrudja (Land of Dobrotica); in 1388, Ottomans compelled Tvrtko's father-in-law Ivan Stratsimir, the ruler of the Principality of Vidin, into submission.

On the eve of the battle, the front line extended from Danube delta, following the river upstream, up to and along Velika Morava, salients of (Kruševac, i.e., eastern part of Zapadna Morava) and Novo Brdo, along Južna Morava, further south following the border between the lands of Murat's vassal Marko Bey on the east side and King Tvrtko's vassal Vuk Branković on the west side, toward middle Albania and the Adriatic Sea. In the whole Europe, on the eve of the battle, Ottomans could have had a total of 60 000 - 77 000 troops^[9] - the lower figure beeing more probable due to losses incurred in 1387-1389 battles. For protection of their Danube, Albanian and long Kosovo-Edirne flanks, they, probably deployed 20 000 - 25 000 troops. Thus, about 35 000 - 57 000 troops, most probably around 40 000, were available to participate in the battle(s) at, and around, Kosovo Polje.

[edit] Details: Western Tvrtko's Side

Vuk Branković, Lazar's son-in-law, controlled Kopaonik mountain, Kosovo Polje and lands toward south, including his capital Prizren and together with Andrijaš Mrnjavčević the dangerously exposed sailent of Skopje with Skopska Crna Gora mountain; he was forced to withdraw from Priština, under the Ottoman treat, who occupied the mountains east of Priština, in wider term known as the area around silver and gold mines of Novo Brdo. Vuk Branković's western neighbor and friend was Vlatko Vuković Kosača, who controlled the strategical territories west of Ibar river, including lands who were ones controlled by Nikola Altomanović; Nikola, since 1373 blinded and perhaps further handicapped by Lazar and Lazar's brother-in-law Musa, had been, during 1370s-1390s living with his maternal cousin Vuk Branković; Nikola's son Toma distinguished himself fighting Ottomans.

Acrimonious relationship between the 1375 legally elected Patriarch of Peć (Jefrem, Efraim), 1375-1400, who was living with Vuk Branković, and the splinter group of Pomoravlje, who acknowledged the supremacy of Patriarch of Constantinople and his nominal boss Tsar Murad may shed some light on the situation on the eve of the battle. Since the winter of 1371_1372 Lazar had been a vassal of Murad I on the territories southeast of Gruža-Knić-Lepenica border; in 1373 Louis I of Hungary chartered his vassal Lazar to collect taxes on the territories of Rudnik (the Mine); during 1378-1379 Lazar's privilegies were extended to the territories north up to Danube river. In 1387, Ottomans sealed off Lazar's piggy-bank the silver and gold mines of Novo Brdo; in the same year, Lazar's son-in-law Nikola Gorjanski Mladji (Miklos Garai II), on behalf of Louis I's daughter and successor Queen Mary of Hungary, took over Lazar's second piggy-bank Rudnik and territories toward Danube. Time had come for Lazar to pay the bills and choose the side --- his position was rather difficult, his resources very limited and drying quickly. ... to be continued

According to the Western and Ottoman sources, Murad's opponent was the King of Hungary. Who was this elusive Rex Hungariae who was able to muster such a strong army and defeat the Ottomans and gravelly wound or even kill their leader Murad Bey ?

Sometime around Christmass of the year 1000, the ruler of Magyars, pagan Vajk of Árpád dynasty, baptized István ~ Stephen (στεφανος, the crowned one), was crowned as Stephen I of Hungary. His appointed successor was his nephew Pietro Orseolo, Urso, Uroš. Ever since, Stephan, and Uroš, have been popular names among Balkan's nobility.

In 1370s, Rex Hungariae, Ramae (part of Bosnia), Rassiae (part of Serbia), Poloniae, etc., was Louis I the Great (Nagy Lajos) d'Anjou. His long (1342-1382) and wise reign has been described as the golden age of Hungary and Slavonic lands. Louis was the son of Polish Princess Elizabeth, elder sister of Casimir the Great, and Naples born Charles I Robert of Hungary, the grandson of Árpád princess Maria. Louis ruled numerous Slavonic and Hungarian, mostly pagan, tribes from Adriatic sea almost to the Baltic sea; his wife Elizabeth of Bosnia was also his cousin; she was also the first cousin and adopted sister of Tvrtko, both were of Bogumil~Kristjani heresy, as seen from Rome and Constantinople perspectives. Louis patrimonial inheritance were Naples and Sicily, i.e., modern day Southern Italy. Consequently, his natural enemies were the Pope and Venice. Louis fought three long and bloody wars against Venice, loosing the first (Battle of Zara 1346.07.01) but without significant loss of territories, while winning the last two wars (Treaty of Zara 1358.02.18, Treaty of Turin 1381.08), gaining the whole coast of Dalmatia. The great benefactors of these wars were also Louis' in-laws the Kotromanić family. Some of Louis > Kotromanić battle hardened troops fought at Kosovo. ... to be continued

One could not understand what really happened at Kosovo Polje, without analyzing in details the impacts of future Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg on Balkans, since his expulsion from Poland and his long but for his Slavonic subjects catastrophic reign of fifty years from 1387-1437. ... to be continued

In 1353 Tvrtko inherited from his paternal uncle Stjepan II Kotromanić a prosperous country and a battle hardened army of about 25 000 men. After some growing pains, Tvrtko established himself as an able military commander, in 1373 in particular, but foremost as an excellent administrator of his realm. At least between 1360s and Tvrtko's death in 1391 his realm was place of peace, tolerance and prosperity. He greatly benefited from civil wars which followed the death of his brother-in-law Louis I and built his two (western and eastern) armies in size and strength. As the relationship between Sigismund on one side and his mother-in-law Regent Elisabeth of Bosnia and her daughter Queen Mary of Hungary on the other side deteriorated, the ladies were transferring some of their assets to their closest relatives: Tvrtko in the south, and Jadwiga, Maria's sister, in the north and east. ... to be continued

In 1389 King Tvrtko was the only ruler in the whole Balkans, and wider area, except Ottomans, who, with the help of his two nieces Queen Mary of Hungary and Queen Jadwiga of Poland, could put in field an army of 40 000-50 000 men. Extensive records from this period and up to at least 1430s show that Tvrtko's military commanders, and successors, Veliki Vojvoda Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić in the western lands and Veliki Vojvoda Vlatko Vuković Kosača, including his successor and nephew Veliki Vojvoda Sandalj Hranić Kosača and Sandalj's successor and nephew Veliki Vojvoda Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, in the eastern lands of Tvrtko's kingdom, each commanded an army of 15 000 - 20 000 men with strong heavy cavalry units.

In 1387 Tvrtko scored a political triumph: in a comprehensive deal, his ally Ivan Krcki (later known as Frankopan) saved Tvrtko's niece Quen Mary of Hungary from her captivity and eventual death; one of the paid capturers Ban Ivan of Paližna, Ivan's friends from Venice-Hungary wars, was transferred to Tvrtko with his elite cavalry units; in Zagreb, Tvrtko's Veliki Vojvoda Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić broke the siege and saved Ivan Horvat, bishop of Zagreb, who with his two powerful brothers and their military units, joined Tvrtko in Bosnia. Tvrtko also incorporated into his kingdom his matrimonial fortress of Klis. Intensive pressure on Split and other Dalmatian lords followed; in 1388, after failed negotiations Tvrtko sent Paližna and Vlatko Vuković Kosača to put some military pressure, followed with intensive but successful negotiations by Vukčić brothers. Tvrtko's arch-enemy Sigismund dispatched his military commander Ladislav of Lučenac to Zadar; his army was routed by Vlatko Vuković Kosača in January of 1389. Tvrtko's western borders were secured. In March of 1389, Vlatko and his elite cavalry units, dressed in shining brand new Milan-made arrow-proof armor, came in front of Split. Vlatko personally delivered to Split's officials Tvrtko's ultimatum to surrender - due date was 1389.06.15, the day Vlatko Vuković Kosača would defeat Ottomans at Kosovo Polje. ... to be continued

[edit] Army movement

Murad I, ruler of the Ottoman empire, gathered his troops in Philippoupolis (Plovdiv) in the spring of 1389, and arrived in Ihtiman after a three-day long march. From there, he chose the route across Velbužd (Kustendil) and Kratovo. Though longer than the alternative route across Sofia and Nišava valley which would give him direct access to Lazar's lands, it led him to Kosovo, which was strategically important as one of the most important trade crossroads on the Balkans: from Kosovo Murad could attack either Lazar's or Vuk's lands. After staying in Kratovo for a while Murad passed across Kumanovo, Preševo and Gnjilane to Priština, where he arrived on June 14.^[8]

There are less data about Lazar's preparations, but it could be assumed that he gathered his troops near Niš, possibly on the right bank of the Južna Morava. He likely stayed there until he learned that Murad moved to Velbužd, when he too moved, probably across Prokuplje, to Kosovo. Lazar arrived to the Kosovo Field (Amselfeld) right after Murad's arrival at Priština. This was the optimal choice for the battlefield as it controlled all possible directions Murad could take.^[8] Priština is at the Kosovo Field; this strongly suggests only one thing: Lazar's troops, most poorly equipped and few in number, were most probably incorporated into the Ottoman armies (in 1387 at Konya there were around 1000 Lazar's soldiers in Murad's army).^{[citation needed]} Some of Lazar's men might have gone in the opposite direction, toward Kopaonik, where they joined the opposite side.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Army composition

It is not certain how large the armies were, especially as later sources tend to exaggerate on their size, launching it into hundreds of thousands.^[10]

Murad's army might have numbered 27-40,000.^[4][5][6][8] Taking the 40,000 estimate, it probably included some 5,000 Janissaries, 2,500 of Murad's cavalry guard, 6,000 spahis, 20,000 azaps and akincis and 8,000 of his vassals.^[8] Lazar's might have 12-30,000.^[4][5][6][7] Taking the estimate of 25,000, some 15,000 were under Lazar's command, 5,000 Vuk's, and as much of Vlatko's.^[7] Of those, several thousands were cavalry, but perhaps only several hundreds were clad in full plate armour.^[10]

Both armies included some foreign troops: for example, Serbian included Croatian ban Ivan Paližna with a small number of troops, probably as a part of Bosnian contingent while Turkish was helped by Serbian noble Konstantin Dejanović. This led some authors to describe the armies as coalitions.^[10]

“

...if all of us would now turn to salt, we couldn't even salt the Turk's lunch...[11]

”

[edit] The battle

[edit] Troop disposition

The armies met at Kosovo Field. The center of the Turkish army was led by Murad, while Bayezid was on the right wing and Yakub on the left. Around 1,000 archers were in the first line of the wings, followed with azaps and then akincis; in the front of the center were janissary, behind whom was Murad, surrounded with his cavalry guard; finally, logistics was in the back, guarded by a small number of troops.^[10]

Serbian army had Lazar at the center, Vuk at his right wing and Vlatko as left. In the front of the Serbian army was cavalry, while infantry was in the back. While parallel, the disposition was not symmetric, as Serbian center overlapped the Turkish.^[10]

“

When torrent of arrows landed on Serbian armsmen who until then stood motionless like mountains of iron, they rode forward, rolling and thundering like the sea[12]

”

[edit] Start

The battle started with Turkish archers shooting at Serbian cavalry which then moved into attack. They managed to break through Turkish left wing, but weren't as successful against center and right wing. Even the left wing wasn't as defeated as it was simply pushed back.^[10]

[edit] Murad's death

Based on many of the Turkish historical records, it is believed that the Sultan was killed by Miloš Obilić who was pretending to be dead, while the Sultan was walking in the battlefield after the battle. On the other hand, in one account in Serbian records he was assassinated by Miloš Obilić, who made his way into the Turkish camp on the pretext of being a deserter and knelt before the Sultan. He stabbed him in the stomach while kneeling before him.

[edit] Turkish counterattack

The Balkans coalition initially gained advantage after their first charge, which heavily damaged the Turkish wing commanded by Jakub Celebi. In the center, the Christian fighters managed to push Ottoman forces back with only Bayezid's wing holding off the forces commanded by Vlatko Vuković. The Ottomans in a counter attack pushed Balkans forces back and prevailed later in the day. Bayazid I, who would after the battle become the Ottoman sultan, gained his nickname "the thunderbolt" after this battle after demonstrating leading the decisive counter attack.

[edit] The outcome

Due to inadequate reliable historical sources, the result of the battle is not clear. Though the Ottomans managed to push the Serbian forces back, they didn't move further to conquer Kosovo right after the battle. Instead, they retreated. This was due to the death of Sultan Murad; the new sultan Bayezid had to go to the capital to be crowned. On the other hand, some Serbian nobles started paying tribute and supplying soldiers to the Ottomans after the battle, while some didn't. Therefore it is not a clear victory or defeat. However, Ottomans had the initiative now since the toll on the Serbian side was heavy.

[edit] Warning

The majority of Ottoman army in Europe in June of 1389 was non-Muslim (here we follow the modern day state_nation conotations): mostly Muslim Asian troops, around 5 000 convert Jannissaries, non-Muslim Bulgarian, Byzantine, Serb, Macedon and Greek Orthodox subjects, yet mostly pagan, and Roman Catholic, officially mercenaries, soldiers from Venice, Genoa, Catalonia, Navarre, etc.; after all, Bayezid I was the son of a Bulgarian princess, a wine loving bon vivant and don juan - Lazar's youngest daughter Olivera was his 11th concubine_wife. On the opposite side, Tvrtko's alliance consisted of mostly Slavonic pagans viewed as heretic Bogumils from Bosnia and Herzegovina (Tvrtko's main army), Roman Catholics from today's Albania (Balšić, Topia, Muzaka and Dukadjini troops), Monte Negro (Balšić and Vuković troops), Bosnia and Herzegovina (Tvrtko's main army), Croatia (Horvat, Paližna, Nelipić, Frankopan, Gorjanski troops), Slovenia (Herman Celjski Kotromanić troops), Hungary (Miklos Garai, i.e., Nikola Gorjanski troops), Bohemia (Sigismund and his brother HRE Wenceslaus detachment), Poland (Jadwiga and Jogailla troops), Moldavia (Jug and Bogdan troops), Romania (Mircea cel Batran troops) and Serbia (Gorjanski troops), and Orthodox subjects from Serbia (Branković troops), Rassia (Vuković troops), Albania (Branković troops), Monte Negro (Vuković troops) and Macedonia (Andrijaš Mrnjavčević, Branković troops).

There is absolutely no first hand historical and_or military records about the details of disposition of troops and exact place of the battle(s). It has been assumed, probably correctly, that then (Prince) Şehzade Bayezid led mostly European units on the Ottoman right wing, while his younger brother (Prince) Şehzade Yakub led mostly Asian troops on the left wing. Aged Murad I was in the center; however, troops might have been led by the not so experienced Grand Vizier Çandarlı Ali Paşa, less than two years on the job. According to at least some estimates, Ottomans had close to 40 000 troops, while their opponents might have had approximately the same number of men in the field: the battle was close and was hardly fought up to the last moment. Both sides had some experienced, and excellent, strategists and military commanders in their ranks. Based on previous battles and skirmishes over more than two years, both sides knew each others strengths and weaknesses very well, see also Battle of Nicopolis; both sides appear to had used terrain, natural forces and weather patterns to their respective advantage. It would have not be prudent, at least not for Ottomans, to face Tvrtko's (western) iron clad heavy cavalry in the open field as is shown in the figure above. One should also be aware, that the JNA (Yugoslav People's Army) personnel who wrote about the battle, ^[13][14] see also,^[10][15] might had received orders to adjust their writings to previously written historical romans and poetry. On all sides, many historical sources have been written by not always holy men. Originals are rare; what is available are copies, i.e., more precisely rewritten and_or recomposed copies, which contents and authenticity range from perhaps authentic 1:1 copy, those riddled with mostly honest yet incompetent errors to plain forgeries.

It is rather interesting that many Ottoman^[12] and other historic sources consult and_or are based on Aşıkpaşazade.^[16] This author actually participated in the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448, where Ottomans again secured approximately the same initial, strategically the best position, i.e., the hills_mountains east of Priština. One would expect from clever Ottoman tacticians to deploy their forces in their best defensive posture: foot archers in front, strong and deep center with wide but shallow crescent shaped wings of light cavalry, all backed by the eastern mountains with hidden large strategic reserve. The opposite side is forced to adopt to remaining strategical points dictated by the terrain.

Some archaeological findings point toward heavy fightings west of Gračanica Monastery and on both sides of Lab river, its right_northern and left_southern bank. However, one need to take these findings rather carefully, since at these places mentioned above, there were four major battles fought between 1369 and 1448, thus within about 80 years. The first battle in 1369 between victorious Mrnjavčević family on one side and ... Lazar abandoned his nephew and fled the area before the start of the battle ... The second battle in 1389, the main concern of this article, was the biggest and best organized of all four. The third battle in 1402 between Lazarević and Branković cousins ... The fourth battle in 1448 is called, incorrectly, the Second Battle of Kosovo.

Let's address some family connections of some participants. It appears, in the winter of 1371_1372, Murad I's sons Bayezid and Yakub were married to two daughters of Kostadin Bey, himself Nemanjić grandson; Murad I himself was on that occassion married to the girls' aunt Kera Tamara, some sources claim she was girls' mother. Kera Tamara's half-sister Maria was the wife of Basileos Andronikos IV Palaiologos and mother of Basileos John VII Palaiologos; all these de iure Basileos were de facto vassals of Murad I and later of his son Bayezid I. According to some Turkish sources Murad I's step-mother was Theodora, daughter of Dušan Silni Nemanjić and his wife Jelena Asenina, who was the aunt of one of Murad I's wives. One of Jelena's nephews, Ivan Šišman, was Murad's brother-in-law. Ivan Šišman was also Lazar's son-in-law; so was Bayezid; thus Bayezid, Ivan Šišman of Tarnovo Bulgaria and Lazar's sons Stefan and Vuk were all brothers-in-law. Not to be outdone, on the other side of the battlefield, there were three brothers-in-law and at the same time Lazar's sons-in-law: Vuk Branković, Nikola Gorjanski Mladji (Jr.) and Đurađ II Stratimirović Balšić, the last one providing only troops for the battle.

... Battle of in-laws ... to be continued

Although there were heavy casualties on both sides, armies weakest links, i.e., poorly_lightly equipped units and mercenaries who were put in the front lines sustained most of deaths and injuries. This also suggests a prolonged whole day battle, with eventual pause in the middle of the hot summer day. Some authors, including,^[17][18] report about 3-5 days battle(s), which might include some larger skirmishes, reconessance, and test of wills before the main battle on June 15 of the Julian calendar.

[edit] Aftermath

Both armies sustained heavy casualties and both armies withdrew from the battlefield, but the toll on the Christians, especially on Serbia, was catastrophic as much of their political elite was wiped out. Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović was taken prisoner and executed.

It is said that before the Battle Miloš Obilić told to Lazar: "For thy goblet I thank you. For thy speech, Tsar Lazar, I thank you not... Tomorrow, in the battle of Kosovo, I will perish fighting for the Christian faith." He is now held as an epic legend by many Balkans people, while his origin or existence has not been verified yet. He is often regarded as a Serb.

The battle of Kosovo is regarded until today as a milestone in the Serbian national identity and has been evoked several times during the Kosovo war.

According to Ottoman sources^[16][12] Lazar was cought on the run some time, perhaps days or weeks, after the main battle, by Ottoman military commander Saruce ~ Sarudje Paşa of Asia Minor, probably in the hills around Novo Brdo, where Lazar's birthplace is. Yet, not a single major military commander of King Tvrtko's alliance, Vlatko Vuković, Nikola Gorjanski Mladji (Miklos Garai II), Vuk Branković, etc., had been captured and / or beheaded by Ottomans. After the battle some form of treaty had been signed, exchange of prisoners took place, and Lazar's corps had been delivered to his son-in-law Vuk Branković.

Lazar, and his father Pribac, both held the court title of štavilac, i.e, a person in charge of food supply, preparation, cooking and tasting. In 1389, Lazar's title was Knez at most, which is one level below the title of Vojvoda, two levels below Veliki Vojvoda (Commander-in-Chief) and three levels below the King. It is highly unlikely that Lazar, in his 60s and without any military experience, would have lead a military force he had never trained and perhaps never saw before the battle; as any vassal of the time, he was not permitted to have an army but only a detachment of about 1 000 men strong; his teritory was small in comparison with that of Murad I, and that of Tvrtko, and was further drastically limited during the pre war period of 1387-1389; his lands were land-locked, he did not have any access to modern weaponry; there are no known records about him buying weapons from any known source of the time. On the contrary, it appears, he was rather an instrument of the Pomoravlje Orthodox Church who were taking lands away from mostly Slavonic pagan population and converting those lands into monasteries and church properties called metohs, i.e., Metohija. However, within a historical roman and poetry, everything is possible.

Behavior and itineraries of Bayezid and Tvrtko after the June of 1389, supported by overwhelming amount of written and factual evidence, strongly suggest that Ottomans and their Asian and European allies lost the battle and withdrew, while Tvrtko and his allies won the Battle of Kosovo.^{[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27]} Actually, it is difficult to find any historical source who talk about Ottoman victory.^[28] One might assume that Bayezid's heroics allowed Ottoman center to retreat, together with gravely wounded Murad, behind their defensive lines in the woods of eastern mountains and escape the routh from pressing Vuković's and Gorjanski's heavy cavalry.^{[citation needed]} On the southern side of the battlefield Branković' troops, after heavy losses in the morning, supported by Horvat's and Paližna's heavy cavalry, turned the table and inflicted heavy losses on Yakub and his Asian light cavalry troops. Later, after the battle, it would have been unthinkable, suicidal, for Bayezid I to engage in battles more than 1000 km East in Asia Minor, without securing his Western borders, i.e., signing some form of treaty; likewise, it would have been unthinkable, suicidal, for Tvrtko to engage in battles more than 400 km West, without securing his Eastern borders, i.e., signing some form of treaty. Some Ragusa / Dubrovnik's sources talk about exchange of prisoners months after the battle. There were not even skirmishes occurred and_or reported between Tvrtko's and Ottoman troops in time frame between the Battle of Kosovo in 1389.06 and Tvrtko's death in 1391.02/03 ^[29]. Ottomans did not gain any territory; it appears they had to retreat from the area around Novo Brdo as well. Ottoman vassals Vidin and Tarnovo Bulgarians rebelled, so did many states of Asia Minor - not a sign of Ottoman victory.

Before the 1389 year end, Tvrtko's armies won a string of battles against the armies of Tvrtko's true nemesis - consort Sigismund. Within a year, Tvrtko was able to acquire cities of Šibenik, Split and Trogir, and islands of Brač, Hvar and Korčula. On July 10, 1390, probably with permission of his niece Queen Mary of Hungary, Tvrtko proclaimed himself King of Rassia, Bosnia, Dalmatia and Croatian Coastland. Tvrtko's diplomatic correspondence from the summer and fall of 1389 is the only first hand source of information about the battle; he stated explicitly, originals are in Latin: I won, we won the battle against Ottomans. The earliest Ottoman written sources about the battle are from the time of Mehmed II Fatih the Conqueror, i.e., after 1453, thus more than 60 years, a few generations, after the battle. Some of these sources mention one or even two (mop-up ?) battles in the August of 1389; around that time Murad I might had expired, and Lazar might had been beheaded; spiritual leader of Pomoravlje Serbs Spiridon might have been executed as well. Lazar was later buried in Priština by his son-in-law Vuk Branković. Since Priština and surroundings were the place of the battle, and Vuk occupied the place after the battle, it leaves us no doubt who won the battle - Tvrtko and his alliance, including his vassal Vuk Branković.^[23] In 1392 Vuk hosted in Priština his mother-in-law Milica, widow of late Lazar. Around this time, or earlier, Lazar's corps was transferred from Kosovo via Monastery Nova Pavlica to Monastery Ravanica - the itinerary might suggest how far west Ottoman control spread.

Immediatelly after the battle, Bayezid (later named Yildirim, the Thunderbolt, Perun - Slavonic god of war and thunder, Sveti Ilija Gromovnik, Saint Elijah) hurried to the Ottoman capital Edirne (Adrianople, Jedreno). It appears, he struck his first coins in 792 AH, which started on 1389.12.20 of Julian calendar. On 1389.10.26, when a treaty with Genoese of Galata was signed, Genoese did not know about the fate of Murad and Şehzade Yakub. Before the 1389 year end, Bayezid, together with the troops of his in-laws Stefan Lazarević, John VII Palaiologos and Manuel II Palaiologos, crossed into Asia Minor to secure his position ^[30]. It took Bayezid I about 3 years to establish firmly his rule in the Asia Minor and around Constantinople. Then, he turned his attention to his maternal country - Bulgaria.

To gain further insight into the 1389 Battle of Kosovo, we need to analyze the relationship between Bayezid I and his brother-in-law Stefan Lazarević. Lazar's elder son Stefan, called Visoki, the tall one, was well educated man, a distinguished military commander and accomplished administrator of his realms. On a number of occassions, he went beyond his line of duty to save the skin of his brother-in-law, trusted friend and nominal boss Bayezid I: successfully at Battle of Karanovasa trenches in 1394, Battle of Rovine Marches in the valley of Arges river in 1395 and Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, but unsuccessfully at Battle of Ankara in 1402. However, Stefan, or his biographer Konstantin Kostenecki, or the spin doctors between then and now, decided not to provide us with some vital data about Stefan himself, his parents and grandparents, and about his where abouts in the June of 1389. ... to be continued

[edit] Name in different languages

• Albanian: Beteja e Kosovës
• Bulgarian: Битка на Косово поле (Bitka na Kosovo) or Косовска битка (Kosovska bitka)
• Bosnian: Bitka na Kosovu polju or Kosovska bitka
• Croatian: Bitka na Kosovu polju or Kosovska bitka
• Czech: Bitva na Kosově poli
• English: Battle of Amselfeld, Battle of Kossovo or Battle of Kosovo
• French: Bataille de Kosovo
• Italian: Battaglia di Kosovo
• German: Schlacht auf dem Amselfeld
• Greek: Μάχη του Κοσσυφοπεδίου (Máchē tou Kossyphopedíou)
• Hungarian: Rigómezei csata
• Polish: Bitwa na Kosowym Polu
• Portuguese: Batalha de Kosovo
• Romanian: Bătălia de la Câmpia Mierlei
• Serbian: Kosovski Boj or Boj na Kosovu Polju
• Serbian Cyrillic: Косовски бој or Бој на Косову Пољу
• Slovenian: Bitka na Kosovem polju
• Spanish: Batalla de Kosovo
• Swedish: Slaget vid Trastfältet or Slaget vid Kosovo Polje
• Turkish: Kosova Savaşi

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Battle of Kosovo as National Narrative by Dr. Seth Ward
• The Battle of Kosovo: Early Reports of Victory and Defeat by Thomas Emmert
• The Kosovo Legacy by Thomas Emmert alternate URL
• The events Surrounding the Battle of Kosovo 1389 and its cultural effect on the Serbian people by Mark Gottfried
• The Battle of Kosovo Serbian Epic Poems edited by Charles Simic Alternate URL