Ma'at

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Goddess Ma'at in hieroglyphs

or or or or [1]

Ma'at, reconstructed to have been pronounced as *Muʔʕat (Muh-aht),^[2] was the Ancient Egyptian concept of law, morality, and justice^[3] which was deified as a goddess.^[4] As a goddess, her masculine counterpart was Thoth and their attributes go hand in hand.^[5] Like Thoth,^[6] she was seen to represent the Logos of Plato.^[7] Her primary role in Egyptian mythology dealt with the weighing of words that took place in the underworld, Duat.^[8]

Contents 1 Ma'at as a goddess 2 Ma'at as a principle 3 Notes 4 References 5 External links

[edit] Ma'at as a goddess

Because it was the pharaoh's duty to ensure truth and justice, many of them were referred to as Meri-Ma'at (Beloved of Ma'at). Since she was considered as merely the concept of order and truth, it was thought that she came into existence at the moment of creation, having no creator. When beliefs about Thoth arose and started to consume the earlier beliefs at Hermopolis about the Ogdoad, it was said that she was the mother of the Ogdoad and Thoth the father.

In Duat, the Egyptian underworld, the hearts of the dead were said to be weighed against the single Shu feather, symbolically representing the concept of Ma'at, in the Hall of Two Truths. A heart which was unworthy was devoured by Ammit and its owner condemned to remain in Duat. Those people with good, (and pure), hearts were sent on to Osiris in Aaru. The weighing of the heart, pictured on papyrus, (in the Book of the Dead, typically, or in tomb scenes, etc.), shows Anubis overseeing the weighing, the "lion-like" Ammit seated awaiting the results and the eating of the heart, the vertical heart on one flat surface of the balance scale, and the vertical Shu-feather standing on the other balance scale surface. Other traditions hold that Anubis brought the soul before the posthumous Osiris who performed the actual weighing.

Ma'at was commonly depicted in art as a woman with outstretched wings and a "curved" ostrich feather on her head or sometimes just as a feather. These images are on some sarcophagi as a symbol of protection for the souls of the dead. Egyptians believed that without Ma'at there would be only the primal chaos, ending the world. It was seen as the Pharaoh's necessity to apply just law.

[edit] Ma'at as a principle

Ma'at as a principle was at least partially codified into a set of laws, and expressed a ubiquitous concept of right from wrong characterized by concepts of truth and a respect for and adherence to a divine order believed to be set forth at the time of the world's creation. This divine order was primarily conceived of as being modeled in various environmental/agricultural and social relationships. It somewhat resembles the underlying concepts of Taoism and Confucianism at times. Many of these concepts were codified into laws, and many of the concepts were often discussed by ancient Egyptian philosophers and officials who referenced the spiritual text known as the Book of the Dead. Later scholars and philosophers would also embody concepts from the Wisdom Literature, or seboyet.^[9] These spiritual texts dealt with common social or professional situations and how each was best to be resolved or addressed in the spirit of ma'at- it was very practical advice, and highly case-based, so that few specific and general rules could be derived from them. During the Greek period, Greek law existed alongside that of the Egyptian law, but usually these laws favored the Greeks. When the Romans took control of Egypt, the Roman legal system which existed throughout the Roman empire was imposed in Egypt. In addition to the importance of the ma'at, several other principles within Ancient Egyptian law were essential, including an adherence to tradition as opposed to change, the importance of rhetorical skill, and the significance of achieving impartiality and social equality. Thus, "to the Egyptian mind, Ma'at bound all things together in an indestructible unity: the universe, the natural world, the state and the individual were all seen as parts of the wider order generated by Ma'at.

One aspect of ancient Egyptian funerary literature which is often mistaken for a codified ethic of ma'at is Chapter 125 of the Book of the Dead, often called the 42 Declarations of Purity or the Negative Confession. These declarations actually varied somewhat from tomb to tomb, and so can not be considered a canonical definition of ma'at. They appear rather to express each tomb owner's individual conception of ma'at, as well as working as a magical absolution (misdeeds or mistakes made by the tomb owner in life could be declared as not having been done, and through the power of the written word wipe that particular misdeed from his or her afterlife record). Many of the lines are similar, however, and they can help to give the student a "flavor" for the sorts of things which ma'at governed (which was basically everything- from the most formal to the most mundane aspect of life). Many versions are given online, unfortunately seldom do they ever note the tomb from which they came or whether they are a collection from various different tombs. Generally, they are each addressed to a specific deity, described in his or her most fearsome aspect. Some believe the Book of the Dead was the ancient precursor to the Ten Commandments. Here is one version, from the scribe Ani:

THE 42 DECLARATIONS OF PURITY^[10]

1. I have not killed, nor bid anyone kill.
2. I have not committed adultery or rape.
3. I have not avenged myself nor burned with rage.
4. I have not caused terror.
5. I have not assaulted anyone nor caused anyone pain.
6. I have not caused misery.
7. I have not done any harm to man or to animals.
8. I have not caused the shedding of tears.
9. I have not wronged the people nor bear them any evil intent.
10. I have not stolen nor taken that which does not belong to me.
11. I have not taken more than my fair share of food.
12. I have not damaged the crops, the fields, or the trees.
13. I have not deprived anyone of what is rightfully theirs.
14. I have not borne false witness, nor supported false allegations.
15. I have not lied, nor spoken falsely to the hurt of another.
16. I have not used fiery words nor stirred up any strife.
17. I have not spoken nor acted deceitfully to the hurt of another.
18. I have not spoken scornfully against others.
19. I have not eavesdropped.
20. I have not ignored the truth or words of righteousness.
21. I have not judged anyone hastily or harshly.
22. I have not disrespected sacred places.
23. I have caused no wrong to be done to any workers or prisoners.
24. I have not been angry without good reason.
25. I have not hindered the flow of running water.
26. I have not wasted the running water.
27. I have not polluted the water or the land.
28. I have not taken God's name in vain.
29. I have not despised nor anger the gods.
30. I have not stolen from god.
31. I have not given excessive offerings nor less than what is due.
32. I have not coveted thy neighbor's goods.
33. I have not stolen from nor disrespect the dead.
34. I have remembered and observed the appointed holy days.
35. I have not held back the offerings due to the gods.
36. I have not interfered with sacred rites.
37. I have not slaughtered with evil intent any sacred animals.
38. I have not acted with guile or insolence.
39. I have not been unduly proud nor acted with arrogance.
40. I have not magnified my condition beyond what is appropriate.
41. I have done no less than my daily obligations require.
42. I have obeyed the law and committed no treason.

Note that several of these declarations overlap or repeat one another- this is often done for emphasis, as these particular transgressions would have been very damaging to the ancient Egyptian culture and economy (such as adultery, or and robbery) and therefore very serious. Some of them may also be meant to magically purge related, but specific deeds for whom the set of 42 was written.

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

• Collier, Mark and Manly, Bill. How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs: Revised Edition. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
• Faulkner, Raymond. The Egyptian Book of the Dead. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1994.
• Mancini, Anna. Ma'at Revealed: Philosophy of Justice in Ancient Egypt. New York: Buenos Books America, 2004.

[edit] External links

• Principles of Ma'at (negative confessions)
• Egypt: Law and the Legal System in Ancient Egypt by Mark Andrews
• A list of the 42 Principles of Ma'at
• A series of discussions on the meanings of the 42