Modern Greek
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| History of the Greek language (see also: Greek alphabet) |
| Proto-Greek (c. 2000 BC)
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| Mycenaean (c. 1600–1100 BC)
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| Ancient Greek (c. 800–300 BC) Dialects: Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, Attic-Ionic, Doric, Pamphylian; Homeric Greek. Possible dialect: Macedonian. |
| Koine Greek (from c. 300 BC)
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| Medieval Greek (c. 330–1453)
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| Modern Greek (from 1453) Dialects: Cappadocian, Cretan, Cypriot, Demotic, Griko, Katharevousa, Pontic, Tsakonian, Yevanic |
Modern Greek (Νέα Ελληνικά or Νεοελληνική, lit. 'Neo-Hellenic', historically also known as Ρωμαίικα, lit. 'Romaic') refers to the fifth stage of the evolution of the Greek language, i.e. the varieties of Greek spoken in the modern era. Greek is spoken today by approximately 17 million people, mainly in Greece and Cyprus but also by minority and immigrant communities in many other countries. The start of the period of the Greek language known as "Modern Greek" is symbolically assigned in the the fall of the Byzantine Empire (1453), although strictly speaking it has been shaped since at least the 11th century. During much of this time, the language existed in a situation of diglossia, with regional spoken dialects existing side by side with learned, archaic written forms. Most notably, during much of the 19th and 20th centuries, it was known in the competing varieties of popular Demotic and learned Katharevousa. Today, Standard Modern Greek, a standardised form of Demotic, is the official language of both Greece and Cyprus.
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[edit] Classification
Greek forms an independent branch of the Indo-European languages. Within Greek, all surviving forms of Modern Greek, except the Tsakonian dialect, are descendants of the common supra-regional (Koiné) as it was spoken in late antiquity. As such, they can ultimately be classified as descendants of Attic, the dialect spoken in and around Athens in the classical era. Tsakonian, an isolated dialect spoken today by a dwindling community in the Peloponese, is a descendant of the ancient Doric dialect. Some other dialects have preserved elements of various ancient non-Attic dialects, but Attic Koiné is nevertheless regarded by most scholars as the principal source of all of them.
- Further information: Greek language
[edit] Geographic distribution
Modern Greek is spoken by about 17 million people mainly in Greece and Cyprus. There are also Greek-speaking populations in Georgia, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Russia, Egypt, Turkey, Palestine, Albania, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Southern Italy. The language is spoken also in many other countries where Greeks have settled, including Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France, Spain, Germany, Netherlands, South Africa, Sweden, Norway, United Kingdom, and the United States.
[edit] Official status
Greek is the official language of Greece where it is spoken by about 99.5% of the population. It is also, alongside Turkish and English, the official language of Cyprus. Because of the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the 20 official languages of the European Union.
[edit] Varieties
The main dialects of Modern Greek are:
- Demotic Greek (Δημοτική): Strictly speaking "Demotic" refers to all popular varieties of Modern Greek which followed a common evolution path from Koine and have retained a high degree of mutual intelligibility to the present day. As shown in Ptochoprodromic and Acritic poems, Demotic Greek was already before the 11th century the vernacular, "Roman" language of the Byzantine Greeks, notably in peninsular Greece, the Greek islands, coastal Asia Minor, Constantinople and Cyprus. Today, a standardised variety of Demotic Greek is the official language of the Hellenic Republic (Greece) and Cyprus, and is referred to as the "Standard Modern Greek", or less strictly simply as "Modern Greek" or "Demotic".
- Demotic Greek comprises various regional varieties with minor linguistic differences, mainly in pholonogy and vocabulary. Due to their high degree of mutual intelligibility, Greek linguists refer to those varieties as "idioms" of a wider "Demotic dialect", known as "Koine Modern Greek" (Koini Neoelliniki - 'common Neo-Hellenic'). Most English-speaking linguistics tend to refer to them as "dialects", emphasising degrees of variation only when necessary. Demotic Greek varieties are divided into two main groups, Northern and Southern:
- Examples of Northern dialects are Rumelian, Epirote, Thessalian, Macedonian, Thracian.
- The Southern category is divided into groups that include variety groups from:
- Megara, Aegina, Athens, Cyme (Old Athenian) and Mani Peninsula (Maniot)
- Peloponnese (except Mani), Cyclades and Crete, Ionian Islands, Northern Epirus, Smyrna and Constantinople
- Dodecanese and Cyprus.
- Demotic Greek has officially been taught in monotonic Greek script since 1982. Polytonic script remains popular in intellectual circles.
- Katharevousa (Καθαρεύουσα): A semi-artificial sociolect promoted in the 19th century at the foundation of the modern Greek state, as a compromise between Classical Greek and modern Demotic. It was the official language of modern Greece until 1976. Katharevousa is written in polytonic Greek script. Also, while Demotic Greek contains loanwords from Turkish, Italian, Latin, and other languages, these have for the most part been purged from Katharevousa.
- Tsakonian (Τσακωνικά): Spoken today only by 10 villages around the city of Sparta in the region of Laconia in Southern Peloponnese. Tsakonian evolved directly from Laconian (ancient Spartan) and therefore descends from the Doric branch of the Greek language. It has limited input from Hellenistic Koine and is significantly different from all its daughter dialects (such as Demotic and Pontic).
- Pontic (Ποντιακά): Originally spoken in the Pontus region of Asia Minor until most of its speakers were displaced to mainland Greece during the great population exchange between Greece and Turkey that followed the Destruction of Smyrna. It hails from Hellenistic and Medieval Koine but preserves characteristics of Ionic since ancient colonisations. Pontic evolved as a separate dialect from Demotic Greek as a result of the region's isolation from the Greek mainstream that followed the Battle of Manzikert.
- Cappadocian (Καππαδοκικά): A dialect close to and of the same fate as Pontic. Hails directly from the Alexandrian dialect, and its speakers settled in mainland Greece during the great population exchanges.
- Southern Italian or Italiot (Κατωιταλιώτικα ): Comprising both Calabrian and Griko varietes, it is spoken by around 15 villages in the regions of Calabria and Apulia. The Southern Italian dialect is the last living trace of Hellenic elements in Southern Italy that once formed Magna Graecia. Its origins can be traced to the Dorian Greek settlers who colonised the area from Sparta and Corinth in 700 BC. However, it has received significant Koine Greek influence through Byzantine Greek colonisers who re-introduced Greek language to the region, starting with Justinian's conquest of Italy in late antiquity and continuing through the middle ages. Griko and Demotic are mutually intelligible to some extent, but the former shares some common characteristics with Tsakonian.
- Yevanic: A recently extinct language of Romaniote Jews. The language was already in decline for centuries until most of its speakers were killed in the Holocaust. Afterward, the language was mostly kept by remaining Romaniote emigrants to Israel, where it was displaced by Modern Hebrew.
[edit] Demotic as Koiné (Standard) Modern Greek
Koiné Modern Greek (Κοινή Νεοελληνική) refers to the idiom of Demotic that was chosen as the official language of the Hellenic Republic and Cyprus. In English it is usually referred to as Standard Modern Greek. In its pure form it is spoken mainly in the urban parts of Greece, while its various idioms are the vernacular language of most rural Greece and the Greek Diaspora throughout the world. Koiné Modern Greek evolves from the Southern Demotic idioms, mainly the ones of Peloponnese.
In short, Koiné Modern Greek is the natural continuation of Koine Greek, an ancient Greek dialect (known also as the "Alexandrian language") which came into existence after the conquests of Alexander the Great and the Hellenization of the known world. Hellenistic Koiné had assimilated many elements from various different Greek dialects (such as Ionic, Doric and Aeolic) but its nucleus had always been Attic (the dialect of Athens). Hellenistic Koine had been spoken in several different forms in the region of Greece and the Greek speaking world during the entire Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods, until it took the shape of Demotic in the Middle Ages.
After Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire, the same dual-language status of the late Byzantine Empire was re-adapted. The vernacular speech was Demotic (a term similar to "popular") and the official state dialect was Katharevousa ("purified"). Demotic was the language of daily use, and the latter was an archaic form (closer to Attic), used for official documents, literature, newscasting and other formal purposes. In 1976 Katharevousa was replaced by Demotic as the official language of the Greek state. During its long history the Greek language had assimilated some foreign vocabulary from various languages such as Latin, Italian, and Ottoman Turkish, a great part of which was cleansed after its long-lasting co-existence with Katharevousa.
[edit] Phonology
A series of radical sound shifts, which the Greek language underwent mainly during the period of Koine, has led to a phonological system in Modern Greek that is significantly different from that of Ancient Greek. Instead of the rich vowel system of Ancient Greek, with its four vowel-height levels, length distinction, and multiple diphthongs, Modern Greek has a very simple system of five vowels. This came about through a series of mergers, especially towards /i/ (iotacism). In the consonants, Modern Greek has two series of fricatives in lieu of the Ancient Greek voiced and aspirated voiceless plosives. Modern Greek has not preserved length distinctions, either in the vowels or in the consonants.
[edit] Orthography
The Greek vowel letters with their pronunciation are: <α> [a], <ε> [e̞], <η> [i], <ι> [i], <ο> [o̞], <υ> [i], <ω> [o̞]. There are also vowel digraphs which are phonetically monophthongal: <αι> [e̞], <ει> [i], <οι> [i], <ου> [u], <υι> [i]. The three digraphs <αυ>, <ευ> and <ηυ> are pronounced [af], [e̞f] and [if] except when followed by voiced consonants or vowels, in which case they are pronounced [av], [e̞v] and [iv] respectively.
Modern Greek has also four diphthongs: <αη> (or <άη>) [aj], <αϊ> (or <άι>) [aj], <οη> (or <όη>) [o̞j] and <οϊ> (or <όι>) [o̞j] (diphthongs can better be transcribed using the IPA non-syllabic diacritic under [i] instead of the approximant [j]).
The Greek letters <β> and <δ> are pronounced [v] and [ð] respectively. The letter <γ> is generally pronounced [ɣ], but before the mid or close front vowels, it is pronounced [ʝ] (or [ʑ] and [ʒ] in some dialects, notably those of Crete and the Mani). Μoreover, before the mid or close back vowels, tends to be pronounced further back than a prototypical velar, between a velar [ɣ] and an uvular [ɢ] (transcribed [ɣ̄]).
The letters <θ>, <φ> and <χ> are pronounced [θ], [f] and [x] respectively. The letter <χ>, before mid or close front vowels, is pronounced [ç] (or [ɕ] and [ʃ] in some dialects, notably those of Crete and the Mani) and before the mid or close back vowels, tends to be pronounced as a postvelar [x̱]. The letter <ξ> stands for [k͡s] and <ψ> stands for [p͡s]. The digraphs <γγ> and <γκ> are generally pronounced [ɡ] in everyday speech, but are pronounced [ɟ] before the front vowels [e̞] and [i] and tend to be pronounced [ɡ̄] before the back [o̞] and [u]. When these digraphs are preceded by a vowel, they are pronounced [ŋɡ] in formal speech ([ɲɟ] before the front vowels [e̞] and [i] and [ŋ̄ɡ̄] before the back [o̞] and [u]). The digraph <γγ> may be pronounced [ŋɣ] in some words ([ɲʝ] before front vowels and [ŋ̄ɣ̄] before back ones). The pronunciation [ŋk] for the digraph <γκ> is extremely rare, but could be heard in literary and scholarly words or when reading ancient texts (by a few readers); whereas retains its "original" pronunciation [ŋk] only in the trigraph <γκτ> where <τ> prevents the sonorization of <κ> by <γ> (hence [ŋkt]).
[edit] Grammar
Modern Greek is still largely a synthetic language. It is one of the few Indo-European languages that has retained a synthetic passive. Noticeable changes in grammar (compared to classical Greek) include the loss of the dative case, the optative mood, the infinitive, the dual number, and the participles (except the past participle); the adoption of the gerund; the reduction in the number of noun declensions, and the number of distinct forms in each declension; the adoption of the modal particle θα (a contraction of ἐθέλω ἵνα > θέλω να > θε' να > θα) to denote future and conditional tenses; the introduction of auxiliary verb forms for certain tenses; the extension to the future tense of the aspectual distinction between present/imperfect and aorist; the loss of the third person imperative, and the simplification of the system of grammatical prefixes, such as augmentation and reduplication. Some of these features are shared with other languages spoken in the Balkan peninsula (see Balkan linguistic union).
Because of the influence of Katharevousa, however, Demotic is not commonly used in its purest form, and archaisms are still widely used, especially in writing and in more formal speech, as well as in a few everyday expressions like the dative εντάξει ('OK', literally 'in order') or the third person imperative ζήτω! ('long live!').
[edit] Writing system
Modern Greek is written in the Greek alphabet. It consists of 24 letters, each with a capital and lowercase (small) form. The letter Sigma additionally has a special final form. In addition to the letters of the alphabet, Greek has a number of diacritical signs, most of which were eliminated from official use in Greece in 1982 as no longer corresponding to the modern pronunciation of the language. See monotonic orthography for the simplified modern set, and polytonic orthography for the traditional set. Monotonic orthography is today used in official usage, in schools and for most purposes of everyday writing in Greece. The polytonic orthography, besides being used for older varieties of Greek, is still used in book printing, especially for academic and belletristic purposes, and in everyday use by some conservative writers and elderly people. The Greek Orthodox Church continues to use polytonic and Archibishop Christodoulos of Athens[1] and the Holy Synod of the Church of Greece[2] have requested the reintroduction of polytonic as the official script.
[edit] Examples
[edit] Some common words and phrases
- Greek (man): <Έλληνας> [ˈe̞liˌnas].
- Greek (woman): <Ελληνίδα> [ˌe̞liˈniða].
- Greek (language): <Ελληνικά> [e̞ˌliniˈka].
- good morning: <καλημέρα> [ˌkaliˈme̞ra].
- good evening: <καλησπέρα> [ˌkaliˈspe̞ra].
- good night: <καληνύχτα> [ˌkaliˈnixta].
- good-bye: <χαίρετε> [ˈçe̞re̞ˌte̞] (formal); <αντίο> [aˈdiˌo̞] (semi-formal); <γεια σου> [ˈʝa-s̠u] or <γεια σας> [ˈʝa-sas] (informal).
- please: <παρακαλώ> [paˌrakaˈlo̞].
- sorry: <συ(γ)γνώμη> [siˈɣno̞mi].
- thank you: <ευχαριστώ> [e̞fˌxariˈsto̞].
- that: <αυτό> [afˈto̞], <(ε)κείνο> [(e̞)ˈcino̞].
- this: <αυτό> [afˈto̞], <(ε)τούτο> [(e̞)ˈtuto̞].
- yes: <ναι> [ne̞].
- no: <όχι> [ˈo̞çi].
- generic toast: <εις υγείαν!> [ˌis iˈʝiˌan] (literally "to health") or more colloquially: <γεια μας!> ['ʝa-mas] (literally "our health").
- juice: <χυμός> [çiˈmo̞s̠].
- water: <νερό> [ne̞ˈro̞].
- wine: <κρασί> [kraˈsi].
[edit] References
- Ανδριώτης (Andriotis), Νικόλαος Π. (Nikolaos P.) (1995). Ιστορία της ελληνικής γλώσσας: (τέσσερις μελέτες) (History of the Greek language: four studies). Θεσσαλονίκη (Thessaloniki): Ίδρυμα Τριανταφυλλίδη. ISBN 960-231-058-8.
- Vitti, Mario (2001). Storia della letteratura neogreca. Roma: Carocci. ISBN 88-430-1680-6.
[edit] Footnotes
- ^ «Φιλιππικός» Χριστόδουλου κατά του μονοτονικού συστήματος (HTML). in.gr News. Retrieved on February 23, 2007.
- ^ Την επαναφορά του πολυτονικού ζητά η Διαρκής Ιερά Σύνοδος (HTML). in.gr News. Retrieved on February 23, 2007.
| Ages of Greek | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| c. 2000 BC | c. 1600–1100 BC | c. 800–300 BC | c. 300 BC–AD 330 | c. 330–1453 | 1453–present |
| Proto-Greek | Mycenaean | Ancient Greek | Koine Greek | Medieval Greek | Modern Greek |
