Virtual economy
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A virtual economy (or sometimes synthetic economy) is an emergent economy existing in a virtual persistent world, usually in the context of an Internet game. People enter these virtual economies recreationally rather than by necessity; however, some people do interact with them for "real" economic benefit.
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[edit] Overview
These economies are observed in MUDs and massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs). The largest virtual economies are currently found in MMORPGs, such as Entropia Universe, EverQuest, Ultima Online, Dark Age of Camelot, World of Warcraft, Lineage, Industryplayer, Miniconomy, RuneScape, EVE Online, and Gaia Online. Virtual economies also exist in life simulation games such as The Sims Online, or Second Life, which has perhaps taken the most radical steps toward linking a virtual economy with the real world, such as recognizing IP rights for assets created "in-world" by Second Life subscribers, and maintaining a laissez faire policy on the buying and selling of Linden Dollars (the world's official currency) for real money on 3rd party websites. They can even exist in browser-based internet games like Neopets, Tokenzone or Kingdom of Loathing where "real" money can be spent and user-created shops opened, or in other games as a kind of Emergent gameplay
- Persistence The software maintains a record of the state of the world and the resource possessions of the players, regardless of whether or not the game is "in session" for any user.
- Scarcity Users must expend "real" resources such as time and money to obtain goods and/or services in the synthetic world.
- Specialization Availability to players of the resources must vary. For example, a participant whose character has metalsmithing skills could have the ability to make swords, while other players would have to purchase them. Because this results in comparative advantage, complex trade relationships and a division of labor result.
- Trade Users must be able to transfer goods and services to and from other users.
- Property Rights The world must record which goods and services belong to which user identity, and the code must allow that user to dispose of the good or service according to whim.
These conditions of scarcity, specialization, and comparative advantage will create an economic system with properties similar to those seen in contemporary economies. Therefore, economic theory can often be used to study these virtual worlds.
Within the virtual worlds they inhabit, synthetic economies allow in-game items to be priced according to supply and demand rather than by the developer's estimate of the item's utility. These emergent economies are considered by most players to be an asset of the game, giving an extra dimension of reality to play. In classical synthetic economies, these goods were changed only for in-game currencies. These curriencies are often sold for real world profit.
[edit] Controversy: "Real" Economy Interaction
Often, within a game's synthetic economy, interaction with the "real" economy will occur: characters, spells, and items are sold on online auction websites like eBay for real money. These real economies are controversial, to say the least. For example, most would consider it in poor taste to offer, in a social game, one player real cash in order to play a certain way (for example, the hated "one-real-dollar-for-Boardwalk" player). They are viewed by gamers and game designers as spoilers. However, such rules of etiquette need not apply, and in practice they often don't, to massive game worlds with thousands of players who know one another only through the game system.
While many game developers, such as Blizzard (responsible for World of Warcraft), prohibit the practice, it is common that goods and services within virtual economies will be sold on online auction sites, traded for real currencies. Some argue that to allow in-game items to have monetary values makes these games, essentially, gambling venues.
According to standard conceptions of economic value (see the subjective theory of value), the goods and services of virtual economies do have a demonstrable value. Since players of these games are willing to substitute real economic resources of time and money (monthly fees) in exchange for these resources, by definition they have demonstrated utility to the user.
Some virtual world developers officially sell virtual items and currency for real-world money. For example, the MMOG There has therebucks that sell for US dollars. The currency in Entropia Universe, Project Entropia Dollars (PED), could be bought and redeemed for real-world money at a rate of 10 PED for U.S.$ 1. On December 14, 2004, an island in Project Entropia sold for U.S. $26,500 (£13,700). One gamer also purchased a virtual space station for U.S. $100,000 (£56,200) and plans to use it as a virtual nightclub. [1] [2]
One of the largest virtual economies, Lineage, is based in South Korea, claiming to have four million users. The location of its online market, if it exists, is unknown. Many players question the security of such a system due to the possibility of bugs.
Some have claimed that real-economic interactions within virtual economies create a game that constitutes gambling, and that these games should be regulated as such. [3] Others, such as The Themis Group's Richard Bartle have argued that the notion of virtual property is inherently flawed [4] since players do not "own", materially or intellectually, any part of the game world, and merely pay to use it. In fact, one of the dangers of investment in virtual property is that the game developer is free to change the game world at any time.
Furthermore, because "virtual property" is actually owned by the game developer, a developer who opposed real commerce of in-game currencies would have the right to destroy virtual goods as soon as they were listed on eBay or otherwise offered for real trade, though this decision would be highly controversial.
[edit] A Massive Market Place
The release of Blizzards' World of Warcraft in 2004 and its subsequent huge success (far surpassing any other MMORPG) across the globe has forced both MMORPGs and their secondary markets into mainstream consciousness.
Many new market places have opened up during this time, a quick search for WoW Gold on Google will show a multitude of sites (90+ sponsored results at this time, June 2006) from which Gold can be purchased - A far cry from the days when players would trade amongst themselves and over eBay.
[edit] Price Comparison and other Tools
In such a comparatively competitive market business entrepreneurs have stepped in to help gamers who favour Real Money Trade.
For example tools for the comparison of this secondary market have recently become more numerous. Eye On MOGS (Online since December 2005), was the first site to tackle comparison of Gold sellers. Another notable entry was GamerPrice, the which deployed bots to offer real-time price results. (Online since mid-2006, source NetCraft).
Others include MMOFX, Gold Price Watcher and GameUSD.
As MMORPGs continue to grow in popularity and the secondary markets grow with them (some industry experts have suggested that secondary market sales may total more than subscription sales by 2009), services like those above are likely to become less curiosities and more accepted means of interacting with these markets.
[edit] Virtual Crime
The monetary issue can give a virtual world problems similar to the real world. In South Korea, where the number of computer game players is massive, some have reported the emergence of gangs and mafia, where powerful players would threaten beginners to give money for their "protection", and actually steal and rob. Other similar problems arise in other virtual economies: in the game The Sims Online a 17-year old boy going by the in-game name "Evangeline", was discovered to have built a cyber-brothel, where customers would pay sim-money for minutes of cybersex. Maxis cancelled each of his accounts, but had he deposited his fortune in the gaming open market he would be able to keep a part of it, as if deposited in a bank. [5][6]
[edit] Economy stability
For a persistent world to maintain a stable economy, a balance must be struck between currency sources and sinks. Generally, games possess numerous sources of new currency for players to earn. However, some possess no effective sinks, or methods of removing currency from circulation. If other factors remain constant, greater currency supply weakens the buying power of a given amount, a process known as inflation. In practice, this results in constantly rising prices for traded commodities. With the proper balance of growth in player base, currency sources, and sinks, a virtual economy could remain stable indefinitely.
As in the real world, actions by players can de-stabilize the economy. Gold farming creates currency within the game more rapidly than usual, exacerbating inflation. In extreme cases, a hacker may be able to hack into the system and create a large amount of money. This could result in hyperinflation in the game as is the case with Guild Wars.
In the MMORPGRuneScape, the economy is incredibly unstable, making for extreme jumps in prices, making the economy dependant on the popularity of the items, not the gold. An item called a Dragon Battle Axe, formerly only obtainable from a very rare kill, has suddenly become easier to obtain from a lower level creature, making for a much lower price.
While the Federal Reserve Bank usually manages to adjust interest rates to slow inflation of the U.S. Dollar, game operators have found this balance very difficult to maintain. Mudflation is a common problem in virtual economies.
[edit] Capital in Virtual Economies
In these virtual economies, the value of in-game resources is frequently tied to the in-game power they confer upon the owner. This power allows the user, usually, to acquire more rare and valuable items. In this regard, in-game resources are not just tradable objects but can play the role of capital.
Players also acquire human capital as they become more powerful. Powerful guilds often recruit powerful players so that player can acquire better items which can only be acquired by the cooperation among many players (sometimes to the hundreds).
Unlike in standard economies, identities, or characters can also be sold. High-level characters can be, in these worlds, the most valuable form of capital. Level 60 EverQuest characters reportedly have sold for as much as $5,000 USD.[citation needed]
Depending on which industry expert you talk to valuations of the secondary market, i.e. the real money trade of virtual commodities, range from around $1 Billion USD to $3 Billion USD in 2006. In any case this is a very large, and growing, market.
[edit] Other Virtual Economies
Virtual economies have also been said to exist in the "metagame" worlds of live-action role-playing games and collectible card games.
[edit] External links
- Virtual Economy Research Network - a communication platform for researchers interested in real-money trade of virtual property.
- VERN bibliography - a comprehensive bibliography of publications related to virtual economy
- World's World The Virtual Economy Game
- Castronova, Edward. "Virtual Worlds: A First-Hand Account of Market and Society on the Cyberian Frontier," CESifo Working Paper No. 618, December 2001.
- Castronova, Edward. "On Virtual Economies," CESifo Working Paper Series No. 752, July 2002.
- Castronova, Edward. "The Price of 'Man' and 'Woman': A Hedonic Pricing Model of Avatar Attributes in a Synthethic World," CESifo Working Paper Series No. 957, June 2003.
- Dr. Richard A. Bartle - Pitfalls of Virtual Property - A philosophical case against the concept of "virtual property" ownership.
- The Punctured Magic Circle - One game designer's viewpoint on virtual economies.
- Virtual Economies The Economist, Jan 2005, (subscription)
- Zonk (Slashdot). "Virtual Island Sells For $26,500". [7] 14 December 2004.
- Fairfield, Joshua, "Virtual Property". Boston University Law Review, Vol. 85, 2005
- Internet Gambling Regulation Present and Future - Mark Methenitis' Essay for Texas Tech University School of Law detailing internet gambling and economies within MMORPG's and the problems that will be faced in the future.
- Economic Theory and MMOGs - Powerpoint presentation by Sam Lewis, a designer working with SOE, on the interaction between economic theory and MMO design.
- World of Warcraft Gold Study detailing effects of real money trade on the European and American realms. Includes realm by realm statistics.
