Johnstown Flood
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The Johnstown Flood disaster (or Great Flood of 1889 as it became known locally) occurred on May 31, 1889. It was the result of the failure of the South Fork Dam situated 14 miles (23 km) upstream of the town of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, made worse by several days of extremely heavy rainfall. The dam's failure unleashed a torrent of 20 million tons of water (18.1 million cubic meters/ 4.8 billion gallons). The flood killed over 2,200 people and produced US$17 million of damage. It was the first major disaster relief effort handled by the new American Red Cross, led by Clara Barton. Support for victims came from all over the United States and 18 foreign countries.
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[edit] History
Founded in 1794, Johnstown began to prosper with the building of the Pennsylvania Main Line Canal in 1836 and the arrival of the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Cambria Iron Company in the 1850s. By 1889, Johnstown was a town of Welsh and German immigrants. With a population of 30,000, it was a growing industrial community known for the quality of its steel.
The high, steep hills of the narrow Conemaugh Valley and the Allegheny Mountains range to the east kept development close to the riverfront areas, and subjected the valley to large amounts of rain and snowfall. The area surrounding the town of Johnstown was prone to flooding due to its position at the confluence of Stony Creek and Little Conemaugh River, forming the Conemaugh River, and to the artificial narrowing of the riverbed for the purposes of development.
[edit] South Fork Dam and Lake Conemaugh
High in the mountains, near the small town of South Fork, the South Fork Dam was originally built between 1838 and 1853 by the State of Pennsylvania as part of the canal system to be used as a reservoir for the canal basin in Johnstown. It was abandoned by the state, sold to the Pennsylvania Railroad, and sold again to private interests.
Speculators had purchased the abandoned reservoir, modified it, and converted it into a private resort lake for the wealthy of Pittsburgh. The changes included lowering the dam to make its top wide enough to hold a road, putting a fish screen in the spillway (that also trapped debris), and raising the lake level. These alterations are thought to have increased the vulnerability of the dam. They built cottages and a clubhouse to create the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, an exclusive and secretive mountain retreat. Members included over 50 wealthy Pittsburgh steel, coal, and railroad industrialists, among them Andrew Carnegie, Andrew Mellon, Henry Clay Frick, Philander Knox, and Robert Pitcairn.
Lake Conemaugh at the club's site was 450 feet (137 m) in elevation above Johnstown. The lake was about two miles (3 km) long, approximately one mile (1.6 km) wide, and 60 feet (18 m) deep near the dam. The lake had a perimeter of 7 miles (11 km) to hold 20 million gallons of water. When the water was at its highest point in the spring, the lake covered over 400 acres (1.6 km²).
The dam was 72 feet (22 m) high and 931 feet (284 m) long. Between 1881 when the club was opened, and 1889, the dam frequently sprung leaks and was patched, mostly with mud and straw. Additionaly a prior owner removed and sold for scrap the 3 cast iron outfall pipes that previously allowed a controlled release of water. There had been some speculation as to the dam's integrity, and concerns had been raised by the head of the Cambria Iron Works downstream in Johnstown. However, no major corrective action was taken, and the flawed dam held the waters of Lake Conemaugh back until the disaster of May 31, 1889.
[edit] The Great Flood of 1889
On May 28, 1889, a storm formed over Nebraska and Kansas, moving east. When the storm struck the Johnstown-South Fork area two days later it was the worst downpour that had ever been recorded in that section of the country. The U.S. Army Signal Corps estimated that 6 to 10 inches (150 to 250 mm) of rain fell in 24 hours over the entire section. During the night small creeks became roaring torrents, ripping out trees and debris. Telegraph lines were downed and rail lines were washed out. Before daybreak the Conemaugh River that ran through Johnstown was about to leave its banks.
During the day, the situation worsened as water rose in the streets of Johnstown. Then, in the middle of the afternoon of May 31st, the South Fork Dam, 14 miles (23 km) upstream, burst, allowing the water of the 3-mile- (5 km) long Lake Conemaugh to cascade down the Little Conemaugh River. On its way downstream towards Johnstown, the crest picked up debris, such as trees, houses, and animals. Occasionally this debris formed a temporary dam at narrow parts of the canyon, which caused water to build up behind this dam before breaking through. Because of this, the force of the surge would gain strength periodically, resulting in a stronger force hitting Johnstown than otherwise would be expected. Just before hitting the main part of the city, the flood surge hit the Cambria Iron Works, taking with it railroad cars and barbed wire.
The inhabitants of the town of Johnstown were caught by surprise as the wall of water and debris bore down on the village, traveling at 40 miles per hour (64 km/h) and reaching a height of 60 feet (18 m) in places. Some, realizing the danger, tried to escape, but most people were hit by the surging floodwater. Many people were crushed by pieces of debris, and others became caught in barbed wire from the wire factory upstream. Those who sought safety in attics, or managed to stay aloft of the flood water on pieces of floating debris, waited hours for help to arrive.
At Johnstown, the Stone Bridge, which was a substantial arched structure, carried the Pennsylvania Railroad across the Conemaugh River. The debris that was carried by the flood formed a temporary dam, stopping further progress of the water. The flood surge bounced upstream along the Stoney Creek river. Eventually, gravity caused the surge to return to the dam, causing a second wave to hit the city, but from a different direction.[1] Some people who had been washed downstream became trapped in an inferno as debris that had piled up against the Stone Bridge caught fire, killing 80 people. The fire at the Stone Bridge burned for three days. Afterwards, the pile of debris there covered 30 acres (120,000 m²). As of 2006, the Stone Bridge is still standing, and is often portrayed as one of the images of the flood.
[edit] Aftermath
The total death toll for the disaster was 2,209 dead. 99 entire families had died, including 396 children. 124 women and 198 men were left without their spouses, 98 children lost both parents. More than 750 victims (1 of every 3 bodies found) were never identified and rest in the Plot of the Unknown in Grandview Cemetery.
Working seven days and nights, workmen replaced the huge stone railroad viaduct that had all but disappeared in the flood.
It was the worst flood to hit the U.S. in the 19th century. 1,600 homes were destroyed, $17 million in property damage was done, and four square miles (10 km²) of downtown Johnstown were completely destroyed. Clean-up operations continued for years.
The Pennsylvania Railroad restored service to Pittsburgh, 55 miles (89 km) away, by June 2. Food, clothing, medicine and other provisions began arriving. Morticians came by railroad. Johnstown’s first call for help requested coffins and undertakers. Demolition expert "Dynamite Bill" Flinn and his 900-man crew cleared the wreckage at the Stone Bridge. They carted off debris, distributed food, and erected temporary housing. At its peak, the army of relief workers totaled about 7,000.
One of the first outsiders to arrive was Clara Barton (1821-1912), nurse and president of the American Red Cross. Barton arrived on June 5, 1889 to lead the group's first major disaster relief effort and didn't leave for over 5 months. She and many other volunteers worked tirelessly. Donations for the relief effort came from all over the United States and overseas. $3,742,818.78 was collected for the Johnstown relief effort from within the U.S. and 18 foreign countries, including Russia, Turkey, France, Great Britain, Australia and Germany.
[edit] Continued flooding
Floods have continued to be a concern for Johnstown. A "500 year flood" was a massive event that hydrologists predicted had only a one-in-500 chance in happening in any given year. These predictions are based upon natural events, and do not take into account an upstream dam failure.
Johnstown experienced additional major flooding in subsequent years, especially in 1894, 1907 and 1924. The most significant flood of the first half of the 20th century was the St. Patrick's Day Flood of March 1936, which also reached Pittsburgh and became known as the great Pittsburgh Flood of 1936.
More recently, on the night of July 19, 1977, a relentless storm reminiscent of 1889 bombarded the city and the rivers began to rise. By dawn, the city was under water that crested as high as eight feet (2.4 m). The seven county disaster area suffered $200 million in property damage and 80 lost lives. Another 50,000 were rendered homeless as a result of the "500 year flood."
[edit] Blame
In the years following the event, many people blamed the members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club for the tragedy. The club had bought and repaired the dam to turn the area into a holiday retreat in the mountains. However, they were accused of failing to properly maintain the dam, so that it was unable to contain the additional water of the unusually heavy rainfall. Despite the accusations and evidence, they were never held legally responsible for the disaster. Though a suit was filed, the court held the dam break an Act of God, and granted the survivors no legal compensation.
Individual members of the club did contribute substantially to the relief efforts. Along with about half of the club members, Henry Clay Frick donated thousands of dollars to the relief effort in Johnstown. After the flood, Andrew Carnegie, one of the club's better known members, built the town a new library. In modern times, this former library is owned by the Johnstown Area Heritage Association, and houses the Flood Museum. Remnants of the dam are preserved as part of Johnstown Flood National Memorial, established in 1964.
[edit] The "Johnstown Flood" Tax
As a result of the damage from the 1936 flood, the Pennsylvania State Legislature imposed an emergency tax on all alcohol sold in the Commonwealth. The temporary 10% tax was initially intended to help pay for clean up, recovery, and assistance to flood victims. The tax was never repealed and in 1963 the tax was raised to 15% and again in 1968 to 18% (not including the statewide 6% sales tax). The near $200 million collected annually no longer goes to flood victims, however, instead going into the general fund for discretionary use by law makers.[2]
The Pennsylvania department of revenue states that, "All liquors sold by the LCB are subject to this tax which is computed on the actual price paid by the consumer including mark-up, handling charge and federal tax. The first sale of liquor also is subject to the sales and use tax at the time of purchase."[3]
[edit] In Literature and Music
Dark fantasy author Caitlín R. Kiernan made the Johnstown Flood the central focus of her 1994 short story, "To This Water (Johnstown, Pennsylvania, 1889)," which appears in her collection, Tales of Pain and Wonder. In the story, the flood serves as a catalyst for revenge in what is essentially a ghost story.
Bruce Springsteen's song "Highway Patrolman" from the Nebraska album (1982) references the event. The narrator of the song and his brother take turns "dancing with Maria, as the band played 'Night of the Johnstown Flood.'"
Brian Booker's short story A Drowning Accident, published by the literary periodical One Story (Issue #57, May 30th 2005) was largely based on and influenced by the Johnstown Flood of 1889. [2]
Murray Leinster had his two time travellers unable to convince the Johnstown population of the coming disaster in his 1966 novel 'The Time Tunnel'.
[edit] Notes
- ^ History of the Johnstown Flood, Willis Fletcher Johnson (1889), pp 61-64. Available on CD-ROM from [1]
- ^ http://www.one-story.com/index.php?page=story&story_id=57
Brian Booker's short story A Drowning Accident, published by the literary periodical One Story (Issue #57, May 30th 2005) was largely influenced by the Johnstown Flood of 1889. [3]
[edit] References
This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
- David McCullough, "The Johnstown Flood", ISBN 0-671-20714-8
- R. O'Connor, "Johnstown- The Day The Dam Broke" (1957)
- Willis Fletcher Johnson, "History of the Johnstown Flood" (1889). [4]
[edit] See also
- Vajont Dam disaster
[edit] External links
- Johnstown Flood
- Johnstown Flood National Memorial - South Fork, Pennsylvania
- South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club Cottages
- Johnstown Flood memorial on National Park Service
- Johnstown PA webpage
- Johnstown Area Heritage Association webpage
- A new look at the Engineering of the Johnstown Flood Dam
Categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica | 1889 in the United States | Andrew Carnegie | Engineering failures | Floods in the United States | History of Pennsylvania | Dam disasters in the United States | History of the United States (1865–1918) | Natural disasters in 1889 | 1889 meteorology
