Lycaenidae
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Lycaeninae - Coppers |
The Lycaenidae are the second-largest family of butterflies, with about 6000 species worldwide[citation needed], whose members are also called gossamer-winged butterflies. There are nearly 6000 species and they constitute about 40% of the butterfly species.[1]
The family is traditional divided into the subfamilies of the blues (Polyommatinae), the coppers (Lycaeninae), the hairstreaks (Theclinae) and the harvesters (Miletinae); others include the (Lipteninae, Liphyrinae, and Poritiinae) but these are taxonomy dependent. A few authorities include the family Riodinidae within the Lycaenidae. The sole member of the enigmatic subfamily Styginae is represented by Styx infernalis from the Peruvian Andes.
Adults are small, under 5 cm usually, and brightly coloured, sometimes with a metallic gloss. The male's forelegs are reduced in size and lack claws.
Larvae are often flattened rather than cylindrical, with glands that may produce secretions that attract and subdue ants. Their cuticles tend to be thickened. Some larva are capable of producing vibrations and low sounds that are transmitted through the plants. They use these sounds to communicate with ants.[2][3]
Adult butterflies often have hairy antenna like tails complete with black and white annulated appearance. Many species also have a spot at the base of the tail and some turn around upon landing to confuse potential predators from recognizing the true head orientation. This causes predators to approach from the true head end resulting in early visual detection.[4]
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[edit] Ecology
Lycaenids are diverse in their food habits and apart from phytophagy, some of them are entomophagous feeding on aphids and ant larvae. Some of them are also associated with ant and are fed by ants. Not all Lycaenidae butterflies need ants, but about 75% of species associate with ants.[2] The term used to describe this is a myrmecophilous relationship. These relationships can be mutualistic, parasitic, or predatory, depending on the species.
In some species, larvae are attended and protected by ants while feeding on the host plant, and the ants receive sugar-rich honeydew from them, throughout the larval life. In other species, only the first few instars are spent on the plant, and the remainder of the larval lifespan is spent as a predator within the ant nest. It becomes a parasite, feeding on ant regurgitations, or a predator on the ant larvae.[2] The caterpillars pupate inside the ant's nest and the ants continue to look after the pupa. Just before the adult emerges the wings of the butterfly inside the pupal case detach from it, and the pupa becomes silvery. The adult butterfly emerges from the pupa after 3-4 weeks, still inside the ant nest. The butterfly must crawl out of the ant nest before it can expand its wings.
Several evolutionary adaptations enable these associations and they include small glands on the skin of the caterpillars called pore cupola organs. Caterpillars of many species except those of the Riodininae have a gland on the 7th abdominal segment that produces honey dew and is called the dorsal nectary gland (also called Newcomer's gland). An eversible organ called the tentacular organ is present on the 8th abdominal segment (third segment of thorax in the Riodininae) and this is cylindrical and topped with a ring of spikes and emits chemical signals which are believed to help in communicating with ants.[5]
As many as 30% of world's threatened butterflies are lycaenids.
[edit] Subfamilies
Many taxonomists include only the Lycaeninae, Poritiinae, Miletinae and Curetinae under the Lycaenidae.[6][7]
Other classifications notably include the Riodininae.[8]
- Lipteninae (Afrotropical)
- Poritiinae (Oriental)
- Liphyrinae (mostly African, some Asian) (Liphyra brassolis, the largest Lycaenid)
- Miletinae Harvesters (mostly African, or Oriental, some Holarctic). Probably all feed on aphids or their secretions
- Curetinae (Oriental or Palaearctic) (Curetis thetis)
- Theclinae Hairstreaks (usually tailed) and Elfins (not tailed) (Global)
- Satyrium pruni, Black Hairstreak
- Atlides halesus, Great Purple Hairstreak
- Eumaeus atala, Atala
- Lycaeninae Coppers (Holarctic)
- Lycaena boldenarum, Boulder Copper
- Lycaena feredayi, Glade Copper
- Lycaena rauparaha, Rauparaha’s Copper
- Lycaena salustius, Common copper
- Lycaena dispar, Large Copper
- Lycaena phlaeas, Small Copper
- Talicada nyseus, Red Pierrot
- Polyommatinae Blues (Global)
- Everes comyntas, Eastern-tailed Blue
- Euphilotes battoides allyni, El Segundo Blue
- Euphilotes pallescens arenamontana, Sand Mountain Blue
- Polyommatus icarus, Common Blue
- Polyommatus semiargus, Mazarine Blue
- Glaucopsyche lygdamus palosverdesensis, Palos Verdes Blue
- Glaucopsyche xerces (extinct), Xerces Blue
- Plebejus argus, Silver-studded Blue
- Maculinea arion, Large Blue Butterfly
- Icaricia icarioides fenderi Fender's Blue
- Pseudozizeeria maha, Pale Grass Blue
- Riodininae Metalmarks (Global, with most Neotropical) - Sometimes raised to family status
- Styginae (Single species from Peru)
- Styx infernalis
[edit] References
- ^ Venkatesha, MG. 2005. Why is homopterophagous butterfly, Spalgis epius (Westwood) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) amyrmecophilous? Current Science 89 (2): 245-246. [1]
- ^ a b c Pierce NE, Braby MF, Heath A, Lohman DJ, Mathew J, Rand DB, Travassos MA. 2002. The ecology and evolution of ant association in the Lycaenidae (Lepidoptera.) ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 47: 733-771.
- ^ DeVries, Philip J. 1992. Singing Caterpillars, Ants and Symbiosis. Scientific American, 267:76
- ^ Robbins, Robert K. 1981 The "False Head" Hypothesis: Predation and Wing Pattern Variation of Lycaenid Butterflies. American Naturalist, 118(5):770-775
- ^ Australian Museum factsheets Accessed December 2006
- ^ Maddison, David R. 2003. Lycaenidae. Version 01 January 2003 (temporary). [2] in The Tree of Life Web Project, [3]
- ^ Ackery, P. R., R. de Jong, and R. I. Vane-Wright. 1999. The butterflies: Hedyloidea, Hesperioidea, and Papilionoidea. Pages 264-300 in: Lepidoptera: Moths and Butterflies. 1. Evolution, Systematics, and Biogeography. Handbook of Zoology Vol. IV, Part 35. N. P. Kristensen, ed. De Gruyter, Berlin and New York.
- ^ Scoble, MJ. 1992. The Lepidoptera: Form, Function and Diversity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854952-0
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
