Parâkramabâhu I

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The statue, traditionally held to be of Parakramabahu the Great, now thought to be a representation of an anonymous bhikku

Parakramabahu I (Sinhala: Maha Parakramabahu, Parakramabahu the Great; 1123 – 1186) was a medieval king of Sri Lanka 1153 – 1186 who ruled from Polonnaruwa. During his reign he unified the whole of the island, (he was one of the last monarchs in Sri Lankan history to do so), oversaw the expansion and beatification of his capital, constructed vast irrigation systems, reorganized the army, encouraged the arts, and undertook military campaigns in southern India and in Myanmar. The adage ‘not even a little water that comes from the rain must flow into the ocean without being made useful to man’ is one of his most famous utterances.^[1]

Parakramabahu spent much of his youth in the the courts of his uncles Kitti Sri Megha and Sri Vallabha, as well as in that of the king of Rajarata, Gajabahu II. He succeeded his uncle Kitti as king of Dhakkinadesa and over the next decade improved both Dhakkinadesa's infrastructure and military might. Following a protracted civil war he secured power over the entire island around 1153, remaining in this position until his death in 1186. During this time he launched a punitive campaign against the kings of Ramanna and aided the Pandyas against the Chola in south India. Within the island of Lanka he constructed numerous religious monuments, hospitals, alms-houses, canals and reservoirs, such as the Sea of Parakrama.

[edit] Background

[edit] Lanka in the early 12th century

From Rajaraja I's invasion of 993 till the reign of Vijayabahu I (1055 - 1100), much of Lanka had been dominated by the powerful Chola polity from south India. Vijayabahu had successfully driven the Chola out at the beginning of his reign and shifted the capital of Rajarata from Anuradhapura to a new, planned city, Pulatthinagara. By the reign of Vikramabâhu I (1111-1132), the island was divided into three discrete kingdoms - Rajarata, Dhakkinadesa, and Ruhuna. Vikramabahu was still regarded as the greatest in dignity as he possessed Rajarata with its sites of religious and historical importance. However Manabharana, king of Dhakkinadesa ('South Country'), and his brothers Sri Vallabha and Kitti Sri Megha, joint kings of Ruhuna, were formidable rivals for the crown.^[2] Furthermore all three were the descendants of Vijayabahu's sister, and thus had a strong claim to the throne; they are referred to in the Culavamsa as the 'Arya' branch of the royal dynasty, whilst Vikramabahu is of the 'Kalinga' branch.

[edit] Birth

Parakramabahu's birth his predicted in the Culavamsa by in a vision seen by his father, king Manabharana of Dhakkinadesa:^[3]

The Chola Empire on the eve of Vijayabau I's rebellion

A son was duly born to Manabharana's wife Ratnavali, and is named Parakramabahu because of his 'foe-crushing arms'.^[4] Though the year of his birth cannot be known exactly it is generally held to be in or around 1123; the location would almost certainly have been the capital of Dhakkinadesa, Punkhagama.^[5]

Upon being informed of the child's birth, orders are sent from Vikramabahu in Polonnaruwa that the boy be sent to be brought up as his heir. This kind of adoption may have been an olive branch of sorts on the part of Vikramabahu, similar to the settlement reached by King Stephen of England around the same time (in which Henry of Anjou, son of his rival the Empress Matilda, is allowed to ascend to the English throne upon his death). Manabharana, however, rejected the offer, stating that 'It is not[prudent]...to send away such a jewel of a son. He goes on to speculate that '...if the boy is taken thither, the party of Vikkamabahu...will gleam with mighty, up-shooting flames, but our misfortune, alas so great, will become still worse!"^[6] The schism between the royal clans was too deep to allow for this manner of accommodation.

Soon after this Manabharana fell ill and died. His younger brother Kitti Sri Megha ascended to the throne, and Parakramabahu, his mother Ratnavali, and his two sisters Mitta and Pabhavati were sent to live in Mahanagahula, capital of Ruhuna, under the care of Sri Vallabha.^[7]

[edit] Youth

[edit] In Ruhuna and Dhakkinadesa

The politics of Lanka inevitably played a significant role in Parakramabahu's upbringing. Whilst he was still young, his eldest sister Mitta was forcibly married to his cousin, Manabharana, son of Sri Vallabha of Ruhuna, against the wishes of Queen Ratnavali.^[8] Ratnavali was herself of the Kalinga clan, and though she was the widow of an Arya king, preferred to see her daughters married to a Kalinga king (polygamy was the norm amongst Lankan kings at the time). During his time at Sri Vallabha's court Parakramabahu met his future mahesi Lilavati, who was Sri Vallabha's daughter. Following Parakramabahu's death, Lilavati would go on to rule Lanka in her own right.

In 1132 Vikramabahu died, and was succeeded by Gajabahu. Taking advantage of the new king's youth, the two Arya monarch resolved to seize Rajarata by force, but failed.^[9] Gajabahu established himself firmly as ruler in Rajarata and nominally senior to the two Arya kings. Neither Sri Vallabha nor Kitti Sri Megha would live to see the king of Rajarata dethroned.

A dagoba near Gal Vihara. Lankan kings continued the tradition of dagoba-building until the Kandyan Kingdom, but few constructed as many as Parakramabahu

After the end of the Arya-Kalinga civil war, Parakramabahu left Sri Vallabha's palace in Ruhuna and returned to Sankhatthali, the new capital of Dhakkinadesa, where he took up residence with his uncle.^[10] The Culavamsa attributes the departure to his impatience and lack of stimulation in Ruhuna^[11] It may also have been caused by Sri Vallabha's plans to place Manabharana of Ruhuna on the throne of Rajarata, which made Parakramabahu's position increasingly precarious in court. In Dhakkinadesa, on the other hand, he is received by Kitti Sri Megha (who had no sons of his own) and essentially adopted; the Culavamsa henceforth refers to Kitti as Parakramabahu's 'father'. During his time here he studied the works of Kautilya, grammar, literature, elephant-riding, martial arts, song and dance.^[12]

[edit] In Rajarata

The young prince, some time after his coming of age, left Dhakkinadesa by stealth and set out for Gajabahu II's realm in Rajarata. Having met his allies at Badalattha (modern Batalagoda), he visited the senapathi Sankha on the border between Rajarata and Dhakkinadesa. When Sankha tried to inform Kitti Sri Megha of the prince's journey, Parakramabahu had him killed.^[13] Sankha had been his guardian and Kitti Sri Megha described him as 'mightiest vassal in my kingdom', making the murder all the more serious.^[14] Parakramabahu seized Buddhagama (modern Menikdena Nuwara) and all of Sankha's property.^[5] Then, having fought a force sent against him by Kitti Sri Megha, he traveled through Malaya to Gajabahu's court.

Why did Parakramabahu behave thus? According to the Culavamsa, his journey is essentially one of reconnaissance:^[15]

The reason provided for Kitti Sri Megha's efforts to bring the prince back to Dhakkinadesa are presented as nothing more than concern for the wellbeing of his nephew (later this becomes concern that Parakramabahu's will reignite hostilities between the Arya and the Kalinga). However, Geiger regards the idea that the king of Dhakkinadesa is 'tenderly attached' to his nephew as a 'fiction', and points out that ‘the spirit in which the accounts of these conflicts are conceived is irreconcilable with the fiction of untroubled relations between uncle and nephew.’^[16]

During his time in Gajabahu’s court, the prince did two things of significance. The first was to ‘enmesh the court of Gajabahu in a web of espionage’ and the other was to marry his sister Bhaddavati to the king. Through this marriage, and various other acts, he ‘so managed matters that the Ruler [Gajabahu] completely trusted him, even as [much as] also the royal family.’^[17]. Nevertheless he retained the entirety of Bhaddavati’s dowry for himself, and entered into secret negotiations with Gajabahu’s general Gokanna. Gajabahu eventually grew suspicious of Parakramabahu’s activities (perhaps alerted to the situation by the prince’s bizarre usage of an elephant in heat to further his spy network) and Parakramabahu yet again departed in stealth, and returned to Dhakkinadesa.

[edit] Return to Dhakkinadesa

Ruins of the royal palace of Polonnaruwa, beatified during Parakramabahu's reign

When Parakramabahu eventually returned from Dhakkinadesa, he was reluctant to enter Sankhatthali to see his uncle Kitti Sri Megha until persuaded to do so by his mother Ratnavali. Kitti died soon after Parakramabahu's return, and the Lesser Chronicle notes that the prince 'was not mastered by the agitation called forth by the grief at his father's death' - perhaps a sign of lingering ill feeling between the two.^[18] Parakramabahu was now king of Dhakkinadesa.

[edit] King of Dhakkinadesa

[edit] Government

Parakramabahu's objective for Dhakkinadesa was to 'within a short time[,] further it so greatly that it will surpass the greatness of other kingdoms'.^[19] He started huge program of construction and renovation, the remnants of which can still be seen in central Sri Lanka today. The Culavamsa mentions him restoring an 'ancient' causeway, the Kotabaddha, over the Deduru Oya near modern Kurunegala.^[20] The new king's personality is illustrated when the architects commissioned to the project inform him that it is well-nigh impossible to carry out, to which Parakramabahu famously replied 'What is there in the world that cannot be carried out by people of energy?'.^[21] He also ordered the construction of canals and dams, and cleared a large area of forest around them for new fields. Most spectacularly he constructed the Parakrama Samudra (Sea of Parakrama), a giant reservoir from which a large swathe of territory derived its water supply. On islands in the middle of the reservoir he constructed a palace and a dagoba.^[22]

The royal court was also transformed, becoming a hub of cultural activity, attracting young nobles 'skilled in the art of riding elephants or horses and of handling the sword, in the use of foreign tongues, [and] in dance and song'. He also reformed the government of Dhakkinadesa, creating two ministries, one handling military affairs, the other internal administration; he later added a third department overseeing the management of mines. Trade was also a huge part of Dhakkinadesa's income - the island of Lanka, given its position, had always been at the junction of several major trade routes. Chinese silk was a significant import and used in the consecration of statues and shrines.^[23]Pearls and gems constituted a huge part of the island's exports, as did cinnamon (which remained, until the 19th century, Sri Lanka's major export), and war elephants. Parakramabahu took a particular interest in the export of gems^[24]

[edit] Preparation for war

The Parakrama Samudhra (Sea of Parakarama). The original Sea of Parakrama mentioned in the Culavamsa was in fact in Dhakkinadesa and is now lost.

Parakramabahu's army had a diverse ethnic make-up. Some of his officers were from the two grand old clans of Lanka, the Moriya and the Lambakanna, who had between them dominated Rajarata from Anuradhapura. A group of Tamil soldiers from near Kurunegala also rallied to him, under a man styling himself the king of Malaya (modern Dumbara). By the time hostilities broke out between Dhakkinadesa and Rajarata, the former's forces also included Veddas,^[25] Cheras, and people from the lower castes not traditionally involved in martial activities. The Culavamsa places the number of soldiers at somewhere around 100,000 people, but the real figure was almost certainly lower.^[26] Parakramabahu would have been able to field war elephants, cavalry, and siege engines, and his force represented a serious threat to Gajabahu's power in the north.

[edit] The conquest of Rajarata

[edit] War with Gajabahu

Around 1150, Parakramabahu made his first move by seizing control of Malaya, strategically securing his eastern flank. He then moved his forces against various chieftains on the border of Rajarata. The final stage of this early campaign was the defeat of an army of Gajabahu himself; after this there appears to have been a brief ceasefire between the two.^[27]

Hostilities resumed soon afterwards. Gajabahu had resorted to securing support from abroad; by the time hostilities resumed between him and Parakramabahu, the army of Rajarata included 'nobles of heretical faith from abroad'.^[28] Parakramabahu himself did not participate in the invasion of Rajarata, but was responsible for the overall strategy of the campaign, which based on the writings of Kautilya.^[29]

The forces of Dhakkinadesa struck at the fortress of Mallavalana near the mouth of the Kala Oya, seizing it and occupying the western coast of Sri Lanka. The army then sailed up to the north and landed at a place called Muttakara or Mutukara ('Pearl-mine') near modern Mannar.^[30] In the meanwhile Gajabahu's senior general Gokanna suffered several defeats in the vicinity of Kala Vewa and was forced to appeal to the king of Rajarata for reinforcements.^[31] Despite receiving these and meeting with some success in Malaya, Gokanna was again defeated, by Parakramabahu's general Mahinda - a rout so total that Gokanna fled the battle scene leaving behind his umbrella (an important status symbol in medieval Lanka). The remnants of his force constructed a fortress in the jungle and took no further part in the war.^[32]

By 1153, Parakramabahu's forces were in a position to take Polonnaruwa; Rakkha and junior general named Sukha inflicted another defeat on Gajabahu just 15 kilometers from the city, seizing the capital of Rajarata soon afterwards.^[33]. The king and his two sons, Colaganga and Vikramabahu, were imprisoned. Parakramabahu was magnanimous in defeat, and laid out clear orders for the treatment of both the former king and the townspeople to his generals:^[34]

A temple in Polonnaruwa bearing a striking similarity to Khmer architecture. Parakramabahu's subjects were and ethnically and religiously varied populace, as is reflected in the make-up of his army.

The pillaging of Polonnaruwa was to have dire consequences for Parakramabahu. Angered by the actions of the forces from Dhakkinadesa, the nobles and allies of Gajabahu - including Gokanna - now appealed to Manabharana of Ruhuna. Despite having an alliance with Gajabahu Manabharana has remained neutral up till this point; now, on the eve of Parakramabahu's victory, he stepped into the conflict and invaded Rajarata.

[edit] War with Gajabahu and Manabharana

The alliance with Manabharana backfired spectacularly for the Kalinga clan. Though the king of Ruhuna kept to his word and drove Parakramabahu from Polonnaruwa, it was soon made clear that he intended to keep the city for himself. His mother, Sugala (niece of Vijayabahu I), and his wives were soon summoned from the south to live in Rajarata; the sacred Tooth Relic and the Alms Bowl Relic, long kept in the south, were now returned under his aegis to the north.^[35]

Gajabahu appealed to Parakramabahu, who ordered his troops to cut off grain supplies to Polonnaruwa and harass travelers on the roads between Ruhuna and Rajarata; as a result 'All the people shut up in the town with King Manabhara^a were like weakened birds in a cage'.^[36] With sporadic attacks from Dhakkinadesan forces slowly grinding down his power in the north, Manabharana left Polonnaruwa to attack a force commanded by Rakkha that had been wreaking havoc in western Rajarata. In his absence Parakramabahu's forces seized Polonnaruwa, liberated Gajabahu II, and took into their possession the entirety of Manabharana's treasury. The disheartened king of Ruhuna returned to the south with his family and the sacred Relics.

No sooner had he been set free than Gajabahu resumed his war against Parakramabahu, but by late 1153 it was clear the king was ailing and no longer wished to continue the fight. He abdicated in favor of Parakramabahu, having the words 'I have made over Rajarata to Parakramabahu' inscribed on a stone tablet to confirm the declaration.^[37] Gajabahu moved to Kantalai, where he died in the 22nd year after his coronation as king of Rajarata.^[5]

[edit] Coronation and defeat of Manabharana

The famous Moonstone of Polonnaruwa. Parakramabahu's reign was not only remarkable for the size and quantity of its public works, but also for the flowering of associated art forms such as sculpture

Parakaramabahu was immediately crowned king of Rajarata, but the war was far from over. Manabharana struck again, sending his armies to the Mahaveli River and attempting to cross into Rajarata via two fords. In the meanwhile Narayana, a chieftain based at Anuradhapura, rose in rebellion, and Parakramabahu's hold in the north was once again threatened.

On this occasion Parakramabahu decided to vanquish Manabharana once and for all; 'Not even in Rohana will I permit King Manabharana who is here crushed in war, so find a hold'.^[38] Rakkha was commanded to hold the fords at the Mahaveli river, which he successfully did, whilst Parakramabahu himself attacked from Dhakkinadesa into Ruhuna. Narayan's rebellion was suppressed by another force, leaving Rakkha free to invade from the north.

If Parakramabahu had hoped for a swift victory, he was mistaken. Manabharana defeated Rakkha's army and drove them back to Rajarata. Parakramabahu found himself facing dissension within his own ranks and the defeat of his forces in Malaya; Manabharana even recaptured Polonnaruwa and with it most of Rajarata.^[39] Despite this he persevered with the offensive, withdrawing from his southern campaign and concentrating his forces in the north. Manabharana once again found himself besieged in Polonnaruwa. Both sides must have been exhausted by the incessant warfare of the preceding years by this point, and Manabharana eventually fled the city for Ruhuna. His forces were overtaken at the Mahaveli River by Parakramabahu's army and annihilated; the king returned to the south in time to pass away from a combination of disease and exhaustion.^[40]

Parakramabahu was finally unquestioned lord of the entire island of Lanka, even though it had been at the cost of around five years of incessant warfare against. The king himself was in years to come to regard this war as one of the most significant events of his reign, mentioning it in several of his edicts carved on stone (such as the on near Devangala.^[41] He celebrated by summoning Manabharana's son, Kitti Sri Megha, to Polonnaruwa and concluding a peace with him, followed by a lavish coronation ceremony.^[42]

[edit] Reign

Parakramabahu established himself at Pulatthinagara from 1153 onwards ruled over the entirety of Lanka for the next thirty-three years. During his time he undertook much of the work he is best remembered for, most significantly in the areas of religious reform, construction, and war.

[edit] Religious reform

During the reign of king Vatta Gamini Abhaya (104BC, 88BC - 76BC), the sangha of Lanka had divided into three rival orders - the Theravada order of the Maha Vihara, and the orders of the Abhayagiri Vihara and Dhakkina Vihara.^[43] One of Parakramabahu's ambitions was the reunify these groups into one order as had existed at the time of Dutugemunu. Furthermore much of the sangha had become corrupted over the years, with monks marrying and having children, and in many cases behaving much like laymen in their pursuit of worldly gain.^[44]

Around 1165, a council was called in Polonnaruwa to discuss the reform of the sangha.^[5] Parakramabahu's chief agent in the enterprise was to be the Mahathera Kasyapa, an experienced monk who 'knew the Tipitaka [sic] and was exceedingly well versed in the Vinaya'.^[45] There appears to have been immense resistance to Parakramabahu's efforts, in particular from the Abhayagiri sect who now adhered to the heretical Vetullavada tradition, whom the king found to be particularly corrupt. Many monks moved abroad rather than participate in the reforms, whilst others simply abandoned the cloth and returned to lay life. In this they may well have been encouraged by Parakramabahu, who seems to have felt that the 'purification' of the priestly orders depended as much on the expulsion and exclusion of the corrupt as it did on the rewarding and encouragement of the orthodox; several times there are references to individuals being given 'lucrative positions' in order to keep them out of their respective Orders. Finally, the king summoned the leaders of the sangha on the island once a year, centering the visit on a ritual on the banks of the Mahaveli river - possibly a practical means of keeping up-to-date with their progress and their standards.^[46]

The Vatadage, Parakramabahu's Temple of the Tooth Relic

Following the crushing of Queen Sugala's rebellion in 1167, he had the Tooth Relic and the Alms Bowl Relic brought to Polonnaruwa; the former was placed inside a jewel in the Temple of the Tooth Relic in Polonnaruwa.^[47] Such constructions became a hallmark of Parakramabahu's reign; his buildings for the sangha are described in great detail in the Culavamsa and comprise an impressive body of work, often accompanied with inscriptions stating his intentions and accomplishments are such as at Gal Vihare.^[48]

[edit] Construction

Parakramabahu's constructions work makes up a significant chunk of the material history of Sri Lanka. Much of the remnants of Polonnaruwa date from his reign, as well as sites in western and south-east Sri Lanka.

One of Parakramabahu's first projects was the restoration of Anuradhapura, which 'had been utterly destroyed in every way by the C[h]ola army', including the restoration of Thuparama (which had been lost to the jungle), Mihintale, and Ruwanveliseya.^[49][50] Then, having founded an administrative centre called Parakramapura, he turned his attention on Polonnaruwa. Unsurprisingly, due to the near-yearly sieges the city had suffered, it 'had reached such a state that naught but its name remained'; it is perhaps because of this that so little of pre-12th century Polonnaruwa remains today.^[51]

The king initially divided the city into four districts or suburbs, each marked with its own alms-giving house for the clergy, containing 'vessels of bronze, cushions and pillows, mats, carpets and bedsteads'.^[52] He ordered the construction of hospitals, which he visited on several occasions.^[53] He also expanded Polonnaruwa's city walls, constructing an elaborate three-walled complex featuring turrets for archers and some fourteen gates. None of this survived till modern times. Beyond the city precinct it is believed he constructed or renovated three smaller townships, in addition to Parakramapura - Rajavesi Bhujanga, Raja Kulantaka (Sinhapura), and Vijitapura.^[54] Extensive gardens were also laid down around Polonnaruwa, featuring ponds and bathing-pools, one of which, the Twin Pools, survives till date; one such garden, the 'Island Garden', extended into the middle of Thupa Vewa on a promontory.^[55]

Much else survives, such as Gal Vihare, ('Stone Shrine') near Polonnaruwa. The Culavamsa attributes the monument in its entirety to Parakramabahu; in truth his contribution may have been extensive refurbishment.^[56] The Vatadage, or 'Circular Temple', was constructed around 1157 following the suppression of Queen Sugala's revolt in Ruhuna, to host the recently recovered Tooth Relic and Alms Bowl Relic. Lankatileke Temple, Alahena Pirivena, Jetavanaramaya and the Demala Maha Cetiya were also constructed in his reign. At the centre of Polonnaruwa Parakramabahu expanded and beatified the royal palace; little remains of it today but its soaring walls hint at the grand scale of the king's vision.

Gal Vihare ('The Stone Shrine')features three statues of the Buddha in three different poses carved from the same large rock

Parakramabahu also continued his program of hydraulic works begun in Dhakkinadesa, including the renovation and reconstruction of many reservoirs and canals wrecked during the Chola invasion. Inscriptions detailing his work can be found at the Maha Vewa near Uruwela ('Vewa' meaning 'tank' or 'reservoir' in Sinhala), Padaviya Vewa and Panda Vewa in North-Western Province. A column discovered at the bottom of the Padaviya Vewa in the 19th century included the inscription 'Made for the benefit of the whole world by the prosperous Sri Parakrama-Bahu, born at Sinhapura, minded of what was fit to be done'.^[57] Though the Culavamsa attributes the construction of various tanks to him, it has been suggested that much of Parakramabahu's work was renovation, and indeed that some of the projects undertaken by his successor Nissanka Malla may have been attributed to him.^[58] In all Parakramabahu is said to have restored or constructed over 216 reservoirs and tanks.

Despite their magnificence Parakramabahu's works exacted a heavy toll on the populace and the treasury. For much of the work in Anuradhapura he utilized Tamil prisoners of war seized during the Pandyan War.^[59] Nevertheless taxation and rajakariya (work owed to the king by commoners, much like the work owed by villeins in feudal England) contributed in large part to the projects; an interesting indicator of the burden of taxation is the disappearance of larger gold coins towards the end of Parakramabahu's reign.^[5]

[edit] Military campaigns

Parakramabahu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns - in the south India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna for various perceived insults to Lanka. He also on several occasions had to suppress revolts against him in Ruhuna.

[edit] Revolts

In 1156, Queen Sugala of Ruhuna - mother of Manabharana of Ruhuna who had fought Parakramabahu so bitterly for the throne - joined a revolt against Parakramabahu. The situation turned dire when a group of mercenaries took the opportunity afforded by the absence of Parakramabahu's army, and his most formidable general Rakkha, to revolt in 1157.

Whilst the insurrection continued in the north, Parakramabahu dispatched another general, Bhuta, to assist Rakkha, who had become bogged down in conflict in Ruhuna. The Culavamsa mentions the soldiers in Bhuta's army wearing 'doublets made of buffalo hide'.^[60] to protect themselves against arrows. Despite reinforcements Rakkha and Bhuta appear to have become stuck in a war of attrition not unlike Parakramabahu's wars for the throne; certainly it outlast the rebellion in the north, which after three months of fighting ended after an engagement in the vicinity of Dik Vewa. The only major victory of this early phase of the rebellion was the seizure of the Sacred Relics in late 1157.

Arimaddhanapura, now known as Bagan, capital of the kingdom of Bagan against which Parakramabahu launched an invasion in 1164

The tide finally turned when reinforcements arrived in Ruhuna, probably in early 1158, through Sabaragamuwa, and from the western coast.^[5] Mahagama was seized and Queen Sugala captured. The forces of Parakramabahu then inflicted something of a bloodbath on the nobility and citizens of Ruhuna, seemingly with the king's approval: 'They caused many foes to whom severity was due, to be brought before them, and at villages and market-towns they had numbers of stakes set up on which they impaled many hundreds of the enemy. Many other foes they had hanged on the gallows and burnt and showed forth in every way the majesty [of Parakramabahu]'.^[61] It may well have been the case that the king was tired of the constant animosity directed at him by the kingdom. The brutal suppression of the rebellion ensured that, apart from a brief insurrection in 1160, Ruhuna remained quiet for the rest of his reign. The fate of Queen Sugala is not recorded.

The only other rebellion of Parakramabahu's reign occurred in the region of modern Mantota in from 1168 - 1169.

[edit] War with Bagan, 1164 - 1165

The kingdom of Bagan, in what is now Myanmar, and Sri Lanka, had been enjoyed a cordial relationship based on trade and a common faith for quite some time. Bagan has emerged as a power in the 9th century and by the 11th its capital city, Arimaddhanapura was a centre of Buddhist learning.

However with the accession of Narathu (1160 - 1165), grandson of Alaung Sithu, the situation changed dramatically. As the Culavamsa puts it:^[62]

It is not certain whether this was part of a particular moved against Lankan merchants, or a general closing down of Baganese borders; whatever the reason, Parakramabahu was incensed. Assembling a fleet at Pallavavanka, dispatched to Bagan a formidable force. The size of the army is not known, but it is recorded as containing a year's supply of grains, specially modified arrows, and of course Sri Lanka's fearsome war elephants. Despite setbacks en route, including the sinking of one and the loss of a few others, the army arrived at the city of Kusumiya (modern Pathein) on the banks of the Bago river, and captured it.^[5][63] Thereafter, the armies captures several other cities, including Arimaddhanapura, killed Narathu, and restored relations between the two countries to normal.

The account of the campaign in Bagan is doubtlessly exaggerated, particularly as Burmese chronicles do not contain any information on a massive invasion from Lanka. Nevertheless there is evidence to indicate that there was some form of campaign undertaken, and that it was a successful one. The story of a Lankan invasion that dethroned Narathu is known in Myanmar.^[64] Furthermore contemporary inscriptions from Devanagala mentions the awarding of land to the general Kitti Nagaragiri for his leadership in a campaign to 'Ramanna', naming the king of Bagan as 'Bhuvanaditta', a possible Lankanization of 'Narathu'.^[65]

[edit] The Pandya War, 1167 - 1183

The Chola Empire in 1120. By 1167 they had lost control of the Pandya territories of south India, partly as a result of Parakramabahu's alliance with Parakrama Pandya

In 1167 the Pandyan king Parakrama appealed to his namesake in Lanka for assistance against an alliance of his rival Kulasekhara Pandya and the Cholas. Such an appeal was not unusual - the Pandya had long found allies in the Sinhalese against the Cholas and their nobility had spent some time in exile at the court of Mahinda IV (956 - 972) after the invasion of their land by Parantaka Chola II.

On this occasion however the Sri Lankan help came too late; by the time Parakramabahu's general Lankapura arrived in Pandya Nadu, Kulasekhara had captured the capital Madhurai and killed King Parakrama's wife and children; his son Prince Virapandu however had managed to escape. Rather than head for Madhurai, Lankapura landed in the vicinity of Ramanathapuram and captured the city of Rameswaran, which remained in Sri Lankan hands for the next thirty years or so.^[5] Here they built a fortress called Parakramapura. In this early phase of the war they fought Kulasekhara on several occasions, eventually laying siege to him in Madhurai and seizing the city. Virapandu was restored to power, but apparently only as a puppet, as the Sri Lankan army under Lankapura remained in Madhurai and continued to engage the Chola across south India.^[66]

The Culavamsa dedicates much of chapter LXXVII to a description of the ensuing war between Lankapura and Kulasekhara, who apparently fought on with assistance from the Cheras. The Lankan effort was so successful that Parakramabahu appears to have established a near-permanent authority over Pandya Nadu (indeed, the chapter is entitled Conquest of the Pandya Kingdom), even establishing a city called Panduvijaya in commemoration of the conquest.^[67] However the account ends abruptly. No mention is made of Lankapura's return to Sri Lanka, nor of whether Virapandu III succeeded on hanging on to power.

The remainder of the story can be gleaned from inscriptions in south India and by inference. The Sinhala army is known to have scored a number of victories over the Chola army. The Pallavarayanpettai inscription indicates that Lankapura was defeated in 1171 and his head was nailed to the gates of Madhurai by Rajadhiraja Chola II (1163 - 1178).^[5][68] Nevertheless the forces of Parakramabahu appear to have remained in Pandya Nadu, scoring victories over Rajadhiraja II in 1176. It was not until 1181 when Virapandu III was defeated that the Sri Lankan army withdrew from Pandya Nadu, retaining only the area around Rameshwaran.

[edit] Death and legacy

The Vatadage on a modern Sri Lankan five rupee note (top). Parakramabahu remains one of Sri Lanka's most revered monarchs

The Culavamsa states only that Parakramabahu 'carried on rule for thirty-three years', and that he passed away in Polonnaruwa. He was succeeded by Vijayabahu, described only as his 'sister's son', who he had summoned from Sinhapura, capital of Kalinga.^[69] It is highly unlikely that Vijayabahu was son of either Pabhavati or Mitta, Parakramabahu's sisters who were married to Manabharana of Ruhuna, as this would not explain why he had to be summoned from Kalinga. Nor could he be son of Gajabahu and Bhaddavati, the other named sister of the king, as the Culavamsa explicitly states that Gajabahu had no sons who outlived him.^[70] It has been postulated that Vijayabahu was in fact the son of an unknown fourth sister who had been married to a king of Kalinga. His place of burial is unknown.

During his reign there is no doubt that Lankan power contributed to the destabilizing of the Chola power of south India; Lankan forces continued to have a presence in Rameshwara till the end of the 12th century and we hear of Sinhala victories until well into the reign of Nissanka Malla (1187 - 1196).^[5] Furthermore the sheer size and extent of the king's construction projects can still be seen in Polonnaruwa today, as well as in the various carvings dotted around the country vaunting the accomplishments of the 'Great King'.

However such success came at a price. Relentless warfare took its toll on the country, and Parakramabahu's reliance on Tamil mercenaries proved to be a destabilizing force after his death. Taxation too was high under his reign, and high-value coinage all but disappeared towards the end of his rule, a sign of increasing poverty - indeed one of Nissanka Malla's most popular actions was reducing taxation.^[5]

Despite his personal reputation and authority Parakramabahu did not take any steps towards ensuring a smooth succession. One reason offered is the strength of Lankan conventional law, which contained fairly fluid conventions for the replacement of rulers.^[71] The chronic instability of the years after his reign undid many of his accomplishments and developed into a crisis that Lanka never recovered from (see the entry for Lilavati for details).

The popularity of Parakramabahu is attested by the fact that no less than seven monarchs adopted his name over the next four centuries, of whom only two or three could lay claim to even a fraction of his successes. Like Basil II of Byzantium his ultimate weakness may have been that he was too successful - taking Lanka to greater heights that it had reached before, but in the process exhausting the island in the process.

[edit] See also

• India
• Sri Lanka
• Dagoba
• Tamil
• Sinhala
• Vijaya
• Devanampiyatissa

[edit] Notes

Much information used in this article was gleaned from Geiger's extensive footnotes to his translation of the Culavamsa.

[edit] References

• Bell, H.C.P, Report on the Kagella District in the Province of Sabaraganuwa, Colombo 1892, in Archeological Survey of Ceylon XIX
• Codrington, H.W., *A Short History of Ceylon, Macmillan & Co., London 1926. Retrieved 7 December 2006.
• Geiger, W., The Culavamsa:Being the More Recent Part of the Mahavamsa, trans. C.Mabel Rickmers, Pali Text Society, London 1929
• Muller, E.B., Ancient Inscriptions in Ceylon, Trubner & Co., London 1883
• Parker, H., *Ancient Ceylon: An Account of the Aborigines and of Part of the Early Civilisation, Luzac, London 1909. Retrieved 7 December 2006.

[edit] Further reading

• de Silva, K.M., A History Of Sri Lanka, London 1981, ISBN 0905838505
• Mitton, G.E., The Lost Cities of Ceylon, J.Murray, London 1916
• Perera, L.H.H., Additional chapters to H.W. Codrington’s A short history of Ceylon, Macmillan, London 1952.

[edit] External links

• An extensive online resource on Sri Lankan history, containing the Mahavamsa, Culavamsa, and numerous historical works.
• A site on the now-lost cities of Ruhuna.
• A site about the Bagan Kingdom.
• The Culavamsa:Being the More Recent Part of the Mahavamsa, W. Geiger