Puranas

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Purana (Sanskrit: पुराण purāṇa, meaning "tales of ancient times") is the name of an ancient Indian genre (or a group of related genres) of Hindu or Jain literature (as distinct from oral tradition). Its general themes are history, tradition and religion. While the major puranas are in Sanskrit, puranas exist in other Indian languages also^{[citation needed]}. It is usually written in the form of stories related by one person to another.

There are many texts designated as 'Purana.' The most important are:

• Mahāpurāṇas and Upapurāṇas, the main Puranic corpus
• Sthala Purāṇas, scriptures usually extolling the virtues of a certain Hindu temple. They narrate stories of the temple's creation and spiritual history.
• Kula Purāṇas - Scriptures that deal with the origin and legends of a particular caste.

According to tradition the Puranas were composed by Vyasa at the end of Dvapara Yuga, whereas modern scholarship dates them to the latter half of the first millennium AD.^{[citation needed]}

Contents 1 Classification and scope 2 Mahapuranas 2.1 Classification 2.1.1 Vaishnava classification by guna 2.2 Authorship, name and chronology 2.3 Puranic genealogies 3 Upapuranas 4 Other Hindu Puranas 4.1 Sthala Puranas 4.2 Kula Puranas 4.3 Other 5 Jain and Buddhist Puranas 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

[edit] Classification and scope

The Puranas are classified into a Mahā- ("great") and a Upa- ("lower, additional") corpus. Traditionally^[1] they are said to narrate five subjects, called pañcalakṣaṇa ("five distinguishing marks"), which are:

1. Sarga - The creation of the universe.
2. Pratisarga - Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution.
3. Vamśa - Genealogy of gods and sages.
4. Manvañtara - The creation of the human race and the first human beings.
5. Vamśānucaritam - Dynastic histories.

Most Mahapuranas and Upapuranas deal with these subject matters, although the bulk of their text consists of historical and religious narratives. Some scholars have suggested that these 'distinguishing marks' are shared by other traditional religious scriptures of the world (e.g. the Bible).^[2] A Purana usually gives prominence to a certain deity (Shiva, Vishnu or Krishna, Durga) and depicts the other gods as subservient. Most use an abundance of religious and philosophical concepts in their narration, from Bhakti to Samkhya. Their composition marks the emergence of Vaishnavism and Shaivism, the division that is still prevalent in contemporary Hinduism.

The Puranas are available in vernacular translations and are disseminated by Brahmin scholars, who read from them and tell their stories, usually in Katha sessions (in which a travelling brahmin settles for a few weeks in a temple and narrates parts of a Purana, usually with a Bhakti perspective).

[edit] Mahapuranas

Traditionally it is said that there are 18 Mahapuranas and 18 Upapuranas. Each Mahapurana lists eighteen canonical puranas, but the contents of each list vary reflecting differences in time and place. Combining the lists, Dimmitt and van Buitenen^[3] have collated twenty names:

1. Agni (15,400 verses)
2. Bhagavata (18,000 verses). The most celebrated and popular of the Puranas.^[4] It is concerned with Vishnu Bhakti, telling of the exploits and deeds of Vishnu's Avataras. Its tenth canto (its longest) narrates the deeds of Krishna and, probably for the first time in Sanskrit, tells of his exploits as a child, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti movements.^[5]
3. Bhavishya (14,500 verses)
4. Brahma (24,000 verses)
5. Brahmanda (12,000 verses; includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus recite as prayer)
6. Brahmavaivarta (18,000 verses)
7. Garuda (19,000 verses)
8. Harivamsa (16,000 verses; more often considered itihāsa)
9. Kurma (17,000 verses)
10. Linga (11,000 verses)
11. Markandeya (9,000 verses; includes Devi Mahatmyam, an important text for Shaktas)
12. Matsya (14,000 verses)
13. Narada (25,000 verses)
14. Padma (55,000 verses)
15. Shiva (24,000 verses)
16. Skanda (81,100 verses), probably the longest of all, containing parables, legends and stories, with multiple versions and recensions. Many untraced quotes from a Purana are conveniently attributed to this Purana.^[6]
17. Vamana (10,000 verses)
18. Varaha (10,000 verses)
19. Vayu (24,000 verses)
20. Vishnu (23,000 verses)

[edit] Classification

The Mahapuranas are also classified by the three aspects of Trimurti,

• Brahma Puranas: Brahma Purana, Brahmānda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Mārkandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vāmana Purana
• Vishnu Puranas: Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana
• Shiva Puranas: Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana, Kūrma Purana, Matsya Purana, Vāyu Purana
• Naga Purana: Nilamata Purana (Kashmir)

[edit] Vaishnava classification by guna

Of the Mahapuranas it is said that six belong to the quality (guna) of goodness, six to passion, and six to ignorance. According to the Padma Purana,^[7] these are the Mahapuranas and their corresponding qualities:

• Sattva ("truth; purity"): Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana
• Rajas ("dimness; passion"): Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Brahma Purana
• Tamas ("darkness; ignorance": Matsya Purana, Kurma purana, Linga Purana, Shiva Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana

[edit] Authorship, name and chronology

Traditionally, the Puranas are said to have been composed by the sage Vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata epic. Vyasa in Sanskrit means 'Divider,' and some scholars therefore take this simply as a term meaning 'Editor'.^[8] The texts, these scholars say, were probably written all over India and are being rewritten and reedited to the present day all over the world.

The term purana, which means "belonging to ancient times" or "an ancient tale or legend," appears in the Vedas (e.g. Atharvaveda 11.7.24^[9] and the Satapatha Brahmana 11.5.6.8. and 13.4.3.13.^[10]). And the term itihasa purana, "account of ancient times," occurs in the Chandogya Upanishad.^[11] and Nirukta.^[12] and the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, where the text thus referred to is considered the "fifth Veda."^[13]

The specific corpus of the Mahapuranas, as opposed to generic purana "ancient tale", are generally estimated to date to the Early Middle Ages, or to roughly between the 5th and 10th centuries, but may contain older material; according to Pargiter, an "original Purana" may date to the time of the final redaction of the Vedas.^[14]

[edit] Puranic genealogies

The Puranas also lay emphasis on keeping a record of genealogies, thus Vayu Purana says: "As seen by good people in the ancient times the suta's duty was to preserve the genealogies of gods, rsis and glorious kings and the traditions of great men." (Vayu P. 1. 31-2)

The Puranic genealogies add up to fantastic time depths^[15] Pargiter has argued that in the Puranas, the Puranic Krta Yuga^[16] "ended with the destruction of the Haihayas [by Rama Jamadagnya]; the Treta began approximately with Sagara and ended with Rama Dasarathi's destruction of the Raksasas; and the Dvapara began with his reinstatement at Ayodhya and ended with the Bharata battle".^[17] The Puranas themselves state that these lists are incomplete.^[18] In Arrian's Indica, Megasthenes is quoted as stating that the Indians counted from Shiva (Dionysos) to Chandragupta Maurya (Sandracottus) "a hundred and fifty-three kings over six thousand and forty-three years."^[19] The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (4.6.), ca. 8th century BCE, mentions 57 links in the Guru-Parampara ("succession of teachers"). This would mean that this Guru-Parampara would go back about 1400 years, although the accuracy of this list is disputed.^[20] The list of kings in Kalhana's Rajatarangini goes back to the 19th century BCE.^[21]

The Puranic genealogies indicate that Manu Vaivasvata lived 95 generations before the Bharata War.^[22]

[edit] Upapuranas

The corpus of Upapuranas is less clearly defined. Some Upapuranas are: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha, Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesa, Mudgala, and Hamsa.^[23] The Ganesa and Mudgala Puranas are sectarian Upapuranas devoted to Ganesha..^[24]

Most of these have not been critically edited yet, and are available mostly through devotional publications, in multiple versions and recensions.

The Devi-Bhagavata Purana extols the virtues of the goddess Durga as the supreme being. It has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Mārkandeya Purana) a basic text for Devi worshipers.^[25]

[edit] Other Hindu Puranas

[edit] Sthala Puranas

This corpus of texts narrates the virtues and stories connected with a certain temple or shrine (the word 'Sthala' means 'Place' in Sanskrit). There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. Most claim to have a Sanskrit origin, and some of the Sanskrit versions also appear in a Mahapurana or an Upapurana. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by David Dean Shulman.^[26]

[edit] Kula Puranas

These are mostly caste focused Puranas (the word 'Kula' means 'Family' or 'Tribe' in Sanskrit). They deal with a caste's origin myth, stories and legends. The caste purana is an important source for caste identity and is usually contested by other, rival, castes. This subgenre is usually in the vernacular and might at times be oral.^[27]

This subgenre has been little researched. But it is rather well documented in the caste section of the British Census of India Report and the various Gazzeteers.^[28]

[edit] Other

There are many other narratives that go by the name of Purana. Most are written in vernaculars and are usually concerned with mythical and historical narrations. These texts, such as the Padma Purana of Bengal and Assam (narrating the story of the goddess Manasā), are vast in number and scattered all over the Indian subcontinent.^[29]

[edit] Jain and Buddhist Puranas

There are many Jain Puranas, dealing with Jain myths, history and legends.^[30] Studies and English translations of this particular genre are meagre. The best known of them is the Mahapurana of Acharya Jinasena. The Jain Puranas form a major part of the early Kannada literature.

Swayambhu Purana, a Buddhist Purana is major source of the history of the Kathmandu valley. Arguably, some Buddhist Mahāyāna Sūtras seem to have some characteristics of Puranas.

[edit] References

1. ^ Matsya Purana 53.65
2. ^ 'Purana as Brahminic Ideology', Velcheru Narayana Rao in Purana Perennis - "Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts" - edited by Wendy Doniger,p. 85-100. ISBN 0-7914-1381-0
3. ^ Dimmitt, Cornelia, and J.A.B. van Buitenen. Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1978. Pages 4 to 5.
4. ^ A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Sir Monier Monier-Williams. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1899. Page 752, column 3, under the entry Bhagavata.
5. ^ Viraha-Bhakti - The Early History of Krsna Devotion in South India - Friedhelm Hardy. ISBN 0-19-564916-8
6. ^ The Scrapbook of Undeserved Salvation: The Kedara Khanda of the Skanda Purana In Purana Perennis, edited by Wendy Doniger,p. 59-83
7. ^ Padma Purana, Uttara-khanda, 236.18-21
8. ^ Purana Perennis - Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts - edited by Wendy Doniger. ISBN 0-7914-1381-0
9. ^ Pargiter 1922:55; Moghe 1997:249
10. ^ Moghe 1997:160,249; SBE Vol. 44, pp. 98, 369
11. ^ 3.4.1-2, 7.1.2-4, 7.2.1, 7.7.1 Moghe 1997:160,249
12. ^ Nirukta 1.16, 12.10. See Moghe 1997:161
13. ^ Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 2.4.10, 4.1.2, 4.5.11. Satapatha Brahmana (SBE, Vol. 44, pp. 98, 369). Moghe 1997:160,249
14. ^ Pargiter 1922, pp.30, 54
15. ^ see e.g. F.E. Pargiter [1922] 1979; P.L. Bhargava 1971, India in the Vedic Age, Lucknow: Upper India Publishing; Talageri 1993, 2000; Subhash Kak, 1994, The astronomical code of the Rgveda
16. ^ In Vayu Purana 32, the four Yugas are divided into 4800, 3600, 2400 and 1200 years.
17. ^ Pargiter 1922:177
18. ^ Matsya Purana 49.72; Pargiter 1922; Kak 1994 The astronomical code of the Rgveda, p.51
19. ^ Pliny: Naturalis Historia 6:59; Arrian: Indica 9:9
20. ^ (see Klaus Klostermaier 1989 and Arvind Sharma 1995)
21. ^ Elst 1999, with reference to Bernard Sergent
22. ^ R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.273
23. ^ These have been studied by the Bengali scholar R. C. Hazra. See his Studies in the Upapuranas, vol. I, Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1958. Studies in the Upapuranas, vol. II, Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1979. Studies in Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Delhi, Banarsidass, 1975. More recently they have been studied by Ludo Rocher in The Puranas - A History of Indian Literature. Vol. II, fasc. 3, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1986.
24. ^ Thapan, Anita Raina (1997). Understanding Gaṇapati: Insights into the dynamics of a cult. Manohar Publishers, 304. ISBN 81-7304-195-4. 
25. ^ The Triumph of the Goddess - The Canonical Models and Theological Visions of the DevI-BhAgavata PuraNa, Brwon Mackenzie. ISBN 0-7914-0363-7
26. ^ Tamil Temple Myths - Sacrifice and Divine Marriage in the South Indian Saiva Tradition - David Dean Shulman. ISBN 0-691-06415-6
27. ^ 'Kulapuranas' - Pulikonda Subbachary in Folklore in Modern India, edited by Jawaharlal Handoo, p. 125-142. ISBN 81-7342-055-6
28. ^ See for example Castes and Tribes of Southern India Vols I-V, Thurston Edgar. Cosmo Publication, Delhi.
29. ^ `Verbal Narratives: Performance and Gender of the Padma Purana', by T.N. Sankaranarayana in Chanted Narratives - The Katha Vachana Tradition, Edited by Molly Kaushal, p. 225-234. ISBN 81-246-0182-8
30. ^ 'Jaina Puranas: A Puranic Counter Tradition' - Padmanabh S. Jaini in Purana Perennis, p. 207-49. And 'An Overview of the Jaina Puranas' - John E. Cort in Purana Perennis, p.185-206.

• S.G. Moghe (ed.), Professor Kane's contribution to Dharmasastra literature, 1997, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd. ISBN 81-246-0075-9

[edit] Further reading

• Pargiter, F.E. 1922. Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. London:Oxford University Press.
• Bhargava, P.L. 1971. India in the Vedic Age. Lucknow: Upper India Publishing.
• R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951 (esp. ch. XIV - XV by A. D. Pusalker)
• Swami Satyananda Saraswati: Swami Purana, Devi Mandir (ISBN 1-887472-61-4)

[edit] External links

• The Puranas (bharatadesam.com)

Texts

• GRETIL (uni-goettingen.de)
• collection of scanned Devanagari editions

Translations

• Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam Full text of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, with the original Sanskrit, word-for-word meanings, translation, and commentary.
• The Vishnu Purana Full text of the H.H. Wilson translation at sacred-texts.com

Synopses

• Contents of 18 Puranas and a list of Upapuranas (lesser Puranas) (a Java applet)
• Extensive synopsis of several Maha Puranas
• Synopsis of Puranas at Urday.com
• Agni Purana - A synopsis
• Garuda Purana extensive extract