Roman Empire/reorganization
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This was a starting point for the reorganization of the Roman Empire article.
The Roman Empire at its greatest extent under the rule of Trajan, c. 117. |
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| National Motto: Senatus Populusque Romanus |
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| Official languages | Latin, Greek | |
| Capitals | Rome; later joined by Constantinople | |
| Government | Monarchy with Republican forms, later Autocracy | |
| Head of state | Emperor, nominally also two consuls; after the division there was a Western Roman Emperor and an Eastern Roman Emperor | |
| Head of government | Nominally, the two consuls were equal co-heads of government. One of the consuls might be the emperor. | |
| Deliberative Body | Roman Senate | |
| Area - Total - % water |
1st before collapse 2.3 million square miles (5 900 000 km²) at its height ?% |
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| Population | estimates vary from 55 million to over 120 million | |
| Establishment | September 2, 31 BC | |
| Dissolution | Division between the Western Roman Empire which ended on the 4 September 476, and the Eastern Roman Empire, widely known as Byzantine Empire, conquered on 29 May 1453. | |
| First emperor | Augustus (27 BC-AD 14) | |
| Last Emperor | Theodosius I (379-395) last ruler over the whole empire, subsequent final division. Last Emperor of the West: Romulus Augustus (475-476) or Julius Nepos claiming sovereignty over the Western Roman Empire, until his death in 480. Last Emperor of the East: Constantine XI (1449-1453). | |
| Preceding state | Roman Republic | |
| Succeeding states | Western Roman Empire, and Eastern Roman Empire (widely known as Byzantine Empire). | |
| Currency | Solidus, Aureus, Denarius, Sestertius, As | |
| See also | ||
The Roman Empire was a phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by an autocratic form of government. The earlier Roman Republic had been devastated and weakened by the conflict between Gaius Marius and Sulla, followed by the civil war of Gaius Julius Caesar against Pompey. During all these struggles hundreds of senators had fallen in battle, been executed, murdered, or had taken their own lives. The Roman Senate had been refilled by loyal friends of the First Triumvirate, and later on, by supporters of the Second Triumvirate. At last, Octavian (later to be known as Augustus) defeated his rival Mark Antony and completed this gradual subversion by thoroughly reorganizing the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.
The precise date at which the Roman Republic changed into the Roman Empire is disputed, with the dates of Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual dictator (44 BC), the battle of Actium, September 2, 31 BC, and the date in which the Roman Senate granted Octavian the title Augustus, January 16, 27 BC, all being advanced as candidates. To confuse us even further, Octavian officially proclaimed that he had saved the Roman Republic and carefully disguised his power under republican forms. Indeed, on the surface it might appear that the Republic was alive: consuls continued to be elected, tribunes of the plebeians continued to offer legislation, and senators still debated in the Roman Curia. However, it was Octavian who influenced everything and controlled the final decisions, and in final analysis, had the legions to back him up, if it ever became necessary.
The end of the Roman Empire is traditionally placed at the 4 of September AD 476, as the Western Roman Empire fell to Germanic invaders. However, this view neglects and fails to recognize the Eastern Roman Empire, widely known as the Byzantine Empire, which protected Roman law and culture. Based in Roman legal and cultural traditions, it was also heavily influenced by ancient Greek culture and language, and developed a distinct character that managed to survive and even thrive for another millennium, eventually being conquered on the 29 of May 1453 by the Ottoman Empire.
[edit] Ancient sources and bias, meanings of names and titles, and modern translations
- Further information: Ab Urbe condita (book), Annals (Tacitus), Histories (Tacitus), and Lives of the Twelve Caesars
It has to be mentioned that many of our ancient sources like Livy, Suetonius, Pliny the Younger, Tacitus, and Dio Cassius are suspect. Some of them came from the old senatorial/republican background and suposedly longed for a restoration of the old republic. Some of them were quite biased and took great care to ridicule certain emperors; accusing them of all manners of sexual deviancies, financial wastefullness, and strange or mad behaviours. Some authors were even accused of being involved in conspiracies against the reigning emperor and were exiled, executed, or forced to commit suicide upon such accusations. The whole truth of all these accusations will most likely never be satisfactorily resolved.
We also have to be very cautious with any translation of an ancient Latin word or title, as the meaning of the word itself almost certainly changed with the passing of time. Caesar was originally only a family name. Octavian had inherited it from his adoptive father Gaius Julius Caesar, and had used it to increase his personal prestige. This trend continued with his successors and the name changed into a title Caesar, analogous to the modern title emperor. Hence, Octavian who is widely recognized as the first emperor, was in ancient Roman times the "second" Caesar. Much latter, it was also translated and evolved into Kaiser (German) and into Tsar (Russian). Augustus was a title, awarded by the Senate to Octavian. Today, he is widely known as Augustus, however in ancient times it simply wasn't a name. This title would also be adopted by all the later emperors. Imperator was originally a title given to a victorious military commander. It would also be adopted by all later emperors and much later evolved into the title Emperor. Imperium originally meant "power" in ancient Roman times. This word was used during republican times and had, initially, no imperial meaning. Much later it was translated and evolved into Empire.
[edit] The first emperor, Julius Caesar or Octavian ?
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- Further information: Julius Caesar, Augustus, Roman dictator, Civic Crown, Princeps, and Augustus (honorific)
"Who was the first emperor?" is one of the "perpetual" questions about the Roman Empire. Under a purely technical point of view there is no clear first emperor as the title itself was unknown to the ancient Romans.
Julius Caesar was a Dictator Perpetuus - a life-long dictator, which was a highly irregular form of dictator, an official position in the Roman republic. According to law, the rule of a dictator would normally never exceed 6 months. The form created by Caesar was therefore quite contrary to the basic principles of the Roman Republic. Nevertheless, officially his authority rested upon this republican title, however irregular it might have been, and therefore he is considered a republican official. At the very least he pretended to be one. Several senators, among them many former enemies who had been "graciously" pardoned by him, grew fearful that he would crown himself and try to establish a monarchy. Accordingly, they conspired to assassinate him, and on the Ides of March, on the 15th of March 44 BC, the life-long dictator perished under the blades of his assassins before he could be crowned.
Octavian, his grand-nephew, adopted son and political heir, is widely accepted as the first emperor. He had learned from the mistake of his predecessor and never claimed the widely feared title dictator, taking great care to disguise his power under republican forms much more thouroughly. All this was intended to foster the illusion of a restoration of the Republic. He received several titles like Augustus - the honorable one, and Princeps - translated as first citizen of the Roman republic or as first leader of the Roman Senate. The later had been a title awarded for those who had served the state well; Pompey had held that title.
In addition, Augustus (as he was named thereafter) was granted the right to wear the Civic Crown of laurel and oak. However, it must be noted that officially, none of these titles or the Civic Crown, granted Octavian any additional powers or authority; officially he was simply a highly-honored Roman citizen, holding the consulship. Ocatvian also became Pontifex Maximus after the death of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 13 BC. He also received several additional and extraordinary powers whithout claiming too many titles. In the end he only needed the authority itself, not necessarily all the respective titles.
[edit] Octavian's reorganization; from Republic to Empire
- Further information: Praetorian Guard, Roman triumph, Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, Arminius, and Publius Quinctilius Varus
After the defeat and subsequent suicides of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian, now sole ruler of Rome, continued or began a fullscale reformation of military, fiscal and political matters. These reforms were intended to stabilize and to pacify the Roman world and would also cement the acceptance of the new regime.
The Roman legions who had reached an enormous number because of the civil wars, more or less 60, were reduced to 28. Several legions, particularly those of doubtful loyalties, were simply disbanded, while others were amalgamated, a fact hinted by the title Gemina - Twin. He also created 9 special cohorts, ostensibly to maintain the peace in Italy, keeping at least 3 of them stationed at Rome. These cohorts became known as the Praetorian Guard.
In 27 BC, Octavian officially tried to relinquish all his extraordinary powers back to the Roman Senate. In a carefully staged way the senators, who by this time were mostly his partisans, refused and begged him to continue for the sake of the republic and the people of Rome. Reportedly, the suggestion of Octavian's stepping down as consul led to rioting amongst the Plebeians in Rome. A compromise was reached between the Senate and Octavian, known as the First Settlement.
Octavian split with the Senate the governorships of the provinces. The "unruly" provinces at the borders, where the vast majority of the legions were stationed, were administrated by imperial legates, chosen by the emperor himself. These provinces were classified as Imperial provinces. The governors of the peaceful Senatorial provinces were chosen by the Senate. These provinces were usually peaceful and only a single legion was stationed at the Senatorial province of Africa.
Whereas before the Senate had controlled the treasury, Augustus mandated that the taxes of the Imperial provinces were destined to the Fiscus, which was administrated by. The revenue of the Senatorial provinces continued to sent to the Aerarium, under the supervision of the Senate. This effectively made Augustus richer than the Senate, and more than able to pay the salarium - salary of the legionaries, ensuring their continued loyalty. This was ensured by the Imperial province of Aegyptus. This province was incredibly wealthy and also the most important corn supplier for the whole empire. Senators were forbidden to even visit this province, and it was largely considered the personal fiefdom of the emperor himself.
Augustus renounced his consulship in 23 BC, but retained his consular imperium, leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the Senate known as the Second Settlement. Augustus was granted the authority of a tribune (tribunicia potestas), though not the title, which allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and the right to speak first at any meeting. Also included in Augustus' tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate. No tribune of Rome ever had these powers, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor. Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his tribunician authority, or he simply assumed these responsibilities, is still a matter of debate.
In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself: all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the praefects, were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Additionally, Augustus was granted imperium proconsulare maius - power over all proconsuls, the right to interfere in any province and override the decisions of any governor. With maius imperium, Augustus was the only individual able to grant a triumph to a successful general as he was ostensibly the leader of entire Roman army.
All these reforms were highly abnormal in the eyes of Roman republican tradition, but the Senate was not anymore composed by republican patricians which had had the courage to murder Caesar. Octavian had purged the Senate of any suspect elements and planted it with his own partisans. How free a hand the Senate had in all these transactions, and what backroom deals were made, remains unknown.
Antempting to secure the borders of the empire upon the rivers Danube and Elbe, Octavian ordered the invasions of Illyria, Moesia, and Pannonia (south of the Danube), and Germania (west of the Elbe). At first everything went as planned, but then disaster struck. The Illyrian tribes revolted and had to crushed, and three full legions under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus were ambushed and destroyed at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 by German barbarians under the leadership of Arminius. Being cautious, Augustus instead secured all territories west of Rhine and contended himself with retaliatorial raids. The rivers Rhine and Danube became the borders of the Roman empire in the North.
[edit] Imperal succession, the rise and fall of the Julio-Claudians
- Further information: Autocracy, Dynasty, Five Good Emperors, Praetorian Guard, and Donativum
All responsible rulers, acknowledging that they are not imortal, try to choose a worthy political heir in a most careful fashion, and Augustus was no different. Lacking any male child, he married his only natural daughter Julia to Marcus Claudius Marcellus, his nephew by his own sister Octavia Minor. However, Marcellus died of food poisoning in 23 BC. Reports of later historians that this poisoning, and other later deaths, were organized by Livia Drusilla, wife of Augustus, are unproven, and inconclusive at best.
Augustus then married his widowed daughter to his loyal friend, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. This marriage produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Vipsania Julia, Agrippina, and Postumus Agrippa. All male children were potential heirs, especially the first two children, who were adopted by Augustus. Augustus also showed great favor towards Livia's children from her first marriage, Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus and his brother Tiberius Claudius Nero, successful military leaders who had fought against the barbaric Germanic tribes.
Agrippa died in 12 BC, and Tiberius was ordered by Augustus to divorce his beloved wife Vipsania Agrippina and to marry the twice widowed Julia. Drusus, the brother of Tiberius died in 9 BC, as he fell down a horse. Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers, but shortly thereafter in 6 BC, he departed for Rhodes, into voluntary exile. After the early deaths of both Gaius in 4 AD and Lucius in 2 AD, Augustus banished Postums for reasons unknown to us around AD 6 or 7 to the small island of Planasia. Tiberius was recalled to Rome and was officially adopted by Augustus. He was in fact the only remaining reasonable choice.
On 19 August 14 AD, Augustus died. In his will Postumus Agrippa and Tiberius were named as co-heirs. However, Postumus was quickly executed. Who ordered his death is unclear, but the way was clear for Tiberius to assume the same powers that his stepfather had had.
De jure - by law, the Senate had the power to appoint the new emperor, but De facto - in fact, the succession largely depended upon the Roman army, particularly of the Praetorian Guard. This unit was stationed at Rome, and as such, was in the ideal position to support their candidate and to murder anyone who displeased them. Wisely Augustus left a Donativum in his will for the guard and all the legions.
[edit] Tiberius
Tiberius was the eldest male relative of Augustus, and a successful general. Chosen by Augustus he really had no chance to refuse the responsibility and the power thrust upon him.
Almost all ascending emperors paid a Donativum to all legions, and in particular to the Praetorians. As time passed, the guard became increasingly greedy and increasingly meddled in political affairs, and this behaviour was soon copied by all the legions of the empire. Any failure or refusal to pay the Donativum could alltoo easily result in the assassination of the new emperor, or result in a new rebellion.
Several times after the death of an emperor, a period of civil war would erupt, with many legions supporting different candidates, and there were several "emperors" at the same time. Several "emperors" could seize the imperial trone, only to be quickly defeated by another claimant, who could claim that he was simply saving Rome from a "usurper". In fact, many emperors, we today consider rightful were former rebels and/or usurpers, who simply won their respective civil war. Whoever was strongest would eventually prevail, and would hopefully try his best to peacefy and stabilize the devastated empire. During these periods the succession resembled more a military dictatorship than anything else.
[edit] The year of the four emperors
[edit] Government and administration
- Further information: Principate, Dominate, Roman provinces, and Crisis of the Third Century
The government of the Roman Empire was an Autocracy, with the head of state being the Emperor, upon whom all power was concentrated. The succession to the imperial throne was a rather deadly affair, and could all too easily lead to a period of crisis and civil war. Usually the eldest son, or in the absence of one, the nearest male relative of the former emperor, was the logical choice and the succession was mostly a dynastic affair. During the Nervan-Antonian dynasty the heirs to the throne were not biological, but adopted sons, being well-respected and popular politicians, senators or generals. It can be argued that those cases were the result of a lack of a direct male heirs, rather than an attempt to appoint on the basis of merit. Still, it did end up creating the line of emperors commonly known as the Five Good Emperors. Ironically, this stable period ended as the last Good Emperor Marcus Aurelius chose his own son Commodus to succeed him.
All real power derived from the Roman Army of which the emperor had absolute control at this point. The Imperial government's main area of responsibility was the army, and it was in that force that his power was based. The army was naturally an extremely costly institution. As such, one of the main tasks of imperial administration was to extract fiscus - taxes to secure the Roman finances and the payment of the legions. The most successful emperors were the ones who maintained the loyalty and discipline of the army, and ensured the internal peace and the unity of the empire. Weaker emperors tried to appease the army through large bribes, and that was hardly a guarantee.
The early imperial period is know as the Principate. During this period, the successors of Augustus tried, with divergent degrees of zeal and success, to disguise their power under republican forms, and much of the administrative work was done by the same elected magistrates of the Roman Republic. The individual provinces and cities were given a fairly free hand in their own government, and the empire as a whole was rather decentralized. The power of the government would be slowly but continually centralized. The magistrates were slowly replaced by freedmen, beginning under emperor Claudius.
Eventually, the Principate changed into the Dominate. This new ruling style arose from the civil wars that marked the Crisis of the Third Century. During that crisis, the majority of emperors were first and foremost generals, and took their position by brute force. Following this period of crisis, the empire continued to concentrate more and more power into the hands of the emperor, and cities lost much of their remaining independence, mostly due to their decline in number and population. This occurred for a multitude of reasons, but the most important was the rise of lawlessness throughout the Empire. Cities became fair game for barbarian invaders and bandits. Only the emperor and the imperial army could provide any stability, and the growing need for the financing of that army required a greater degree of control by the imperial administration, and an increased military presence in cities and countryside. This rather easy distinction is challenged by many historians who defend that it was a far more nuanced and gradual process, and the whole issue is still being debated.
[edit] Trade and taxes, based upon cities, roads, and ports
The Roman conquests had created a huge single market encompassing the whole Mediterranean basin, Western Europe, and bordering regions. Regional economical conditions, especially for agriculture, varied greatly between the warm and arid climate of Northern Africa and the fertile, humid provinces of Britain, Gaul or the Balkans. The Mediterranean Sea and an extensive system of roads stretched throughout the empire and crossed even high mountain ranges like the Alps or the Pyrenees. Both roads and seaports were continually expanded during the Empire.
The backbone of the Roman economy were the many cities, which were centres of industrial production, trade and consumption, although the rural population remained the majority and agriculture the dominant sector of the economy. The largest urban centres were Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Carthage, Ephesus and – in Late Antiquity – Constantinople, all of them with between 100,000 and 1 million inhabitants. All these cities were relatively near the Mediterranean Sea and as such possessed a seaport.
Until the 3rd century, economical conditions were favourable. The imperial administration provided legal certainty and restrained the exploitation of the provinces common during the Republic. The whole empire had one currency. Except for border conflicts and local rebellions, there was a Pax Romana - universal Roman peace. The legions, stationed along the borders, also stimulated production and commerce in those provinces and guaranteed security and stability.
Beginning in the late 2nd century, the military needs of the empire increased with the growing pressure on the borders from the outside, while the Antonine Plague had an additional negative impact. The emperors reacted with a more restrictive financial policy: tribute in kind to supply the army became compulsory and taxes were collected by the state bureaucracy. Local upper classes were made accountable for the taxes of their towns, which increased the financial pressure on them dramatically. After 235, economical, political and military crisis combined to bring the Empire to the brink of destruction.
Unfortunately, the Crisis of the Third Century is also a crisis in available sources, and reliable information on economical conditions is scarce. Beginning with the Severan Dynasty, fiscal pressure began to grow. Lack of manpower became probably a problem, too, as the plague and wars claimed many victims. Again it is very difficult to assess how severe these difficulties were, as sources for demographic trends are very sketchy even in better documented times. The provinces along the Rhine suffered most during the Germanic invasions. Other regions, e.g. Egypt and Britain, remained relatively unaffected by the crisis for the most part of the century. An empire-wide economical crisis set in with a massive inflation towards the end of the century, as the populace lost trust in the heavily debased coinage, which led to a massive rise of prices in many areas of the empire.
[edit] Rebellions, usurpers and their political consequences
In peacetime, it was relatively easy to rule the empire from its capital city Rome. An eventual rebellion was expected, and would happen from time to time: a general or a governor would gain the loyalty of his officers through a mixture of personal charisma, promises and simple bribes. A subjugated tribe would rebel, or a conquered city would revolt. This would be bad, but not a catastrophic event. The legions were spread around the borders and the rebel leader would, in normal circumstances, have only one or two legions under his command. Loyal legions would be detached from other points of the empire and would eventually drown the rebellion in blood. This happened even more easily in the case of a small local native uprising as the rebels would normally have no great military experience. Unless the emperor was weak, incompetent, hated, and/or universally despised, these rebellions would be a local and isolated event.
During real wartime however, which could develop from a rebellion or an uprising, like the massive Great Jewish Revolt, this was totally and dangerously different. In a full-blown military campaign the legions under the command of generals like Vespasian, were of a much greater number. Therefore, a paranoid or wise emperor would hold some members of the general's family as hostages, to be certain of the latter's loyalty. In effect, Nero held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis the governor of Ostia, who were respectively, the younger son and the brother-in-law of Vespasian. This would in normal circumstances be quite enough. In fact, the rule of Nero only ended with the revolt of the Praetorian Guard who had been bribed in the name of Galba. It became all too obvious that the Praetorian Guard was a sword of Damocles, whose loyalty was all too often bought and who became increasingly greedy. Following their example the legions at the borders would also increasingly participate in the civil wars. This was a dangerous development as this would weaken the whole Roman Army.
The main enemy, in the West, were arguably the barbarian tribes behind the rivers Rhine and Danube. Octavian had tried to conquer them, but ultimately failed and these barbarians were greatly feared. But by the large they were left in peace, in order to fight amongst themselves, and were simply too divided to pose a serious threat.
In the East lay the empire of Parthia. Crassus, a member of the first Triumvirate during the late republic, attempted an invasion in 53 BC, but was defeated by Surena in the Battle of Carrhae. It was simply too far away to be conquered. Any Parthian invasion was confronted and usually defeated, but the threat itself was ultimately impossible to destroy.
In the case of a Roman civil war these two enemies would seize the opportunity to invade Roman territory in order to raid and plunder. The two respective military frontiers became a matter of major political importance due to the high number of legions stationed there. All too often the local generals would rebel, starting a new civil war. To control the western border from Rome was reasonably easy, as it was relatively close. To control both frontiers at the same time, during wartime, was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice-versa. It was no longer enough to be a good administrator, emperors were increasingly near the troops in order to maintain their loyalty, and no single emperor could be at the two frontiers at the same time. This problem would plague the ruling emperors time and time again, and many future emperors would follow this path to power.
[edit] Foreign relations, client-kingdoms, allies, and sworn enemies
Sometimes, it was simply not worth to invade and conquer another nation or tribe. It was expedient to leave a friendly client king ruling over a small nation or tribe. The local royal dynasty was expected to acknowledge the greater power of Rome and cooperate with it, offering a suitable tribute in corn, wealth, and occasional military aid. In exchange, the Romans would largely leave the nation or tribe in peace, even protecting it from any foreign aggression. Most importantly, the Romans would support the ruling monarch.
These deals had worked preciously during the Roman republic and would continue largely unchanged under the rule of the emperors. Examples of this policies are: Pergamon under the rule of the Attalid dynasty, Bithynia ruled by Nicomedes IV, Judaea ruled by Herod the Great, Thracia, and Batavia; homeland of the Batavians. Even Prasutagus king of the Iceni, the late husband of Boudica, was in fact a client-king.
These rulers had to juggle the interests of Rome, their own interests, the ambitions of the local aristocracy, and the wishes of the common people in a most careful fashion. Eventually, the Romans would govern much more directly, not needing the local royal dynasty anymore. Parthia, on the other hand, was completely different. Rich, mighty, and ruled by ambitious monarchs the Parthian empire would become Rome's greatest rival and longlasting enemy.
[edit] Constantine the Great, the Christian conversion of the empire
The Great conversion of the Roman Empire came with Constantine the Great. Somebody Please Add More
[edit] The divided empire, the empire with two emperors
Alexander the Great spreading insights of Greek civilization, to include language. The result, some elements of Greek origin combined in various forms and degrees, with other elements taken from conquered civilizations, is known as Hellenism.
[edit] Barbarian invasions, ancient views and modern propaganda
[edit] Legacy and the final conquest of Rome
- Further information: Roman Catholic Church, Romance languages, Corpus Juris Civilis, Civil law (legal system), and Latin alphabet
As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the barbarian warlords who had conquered the provinces felt compelled to uphold many Roman laws and traditions. These "barbarians" were already Christians, but most of them were followers of Arianism. Wisely, they quickly converted to the Roman Catholic faith, gaining more loyalty by the local Romanized population and at the same time recognition and support by the powerful Roman Catholic Church. Although they initially continued to obey tribal laws, they were more and more influenced by Roman Law and began gradually to use it.
Roman law, particularly the Corpus Juris Civilis collected by order of Justinian I, is the ancient basis on which the modern Civil law stands. In contrast, Common law is based on old English law.
Latin as a language never really disappeared. It combined with the "barbarian" languages, giving origin to many modern Romance languages such as: Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian and Romansh, and influenced many Germanic languages such as English, German, Dutch and many others to a certain extent. It survives in its "purer" form as the language of the Roman Catholic Church (the Mass was spoken in Latin until 1970) and was used as a lingua franca between many nations. It remained the language of medicine, law, diplomacy (most treaties were written in Latin), of intellectuals and scholarship.
Another Roman legacy is the Latin alphabet which was improved with new letters: J, K, W and Z. Roman numerals also continue to be used, but were largely replaced by Arabic numerals.
The ideal of the Roman Empire, as a mighty Christian Empire with a single Ruler, would continue to seduce many powerful rulers. Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Lombards, was even crowned as Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III in 800. Emperors of the Holy Roman Empire like Frederick I Barbarossa, Frederick II and Charles V, and mighty Sultans like Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire. All of them (and some others) tried to a certain extent to resurrect it, but it was a hopelessly impossible task and none of their attempts were successful.
The most important legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the Roman Catholic Church. The Church slowly began to replace Roman institutions in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th Century. As the barbarians invaded, many converted, and by the middle of the medieval period (ca. 9th and 10th centuries) the central, western and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted to the Roman Catholic Faith and acknowledged the Pope as the Vicar of Christ.
Ironically, Rome's final victory and conquest of the Germans and Slavs came after her fall as an Empire through the church-sponsored missionaries spreading ever further north, until paganism was stamped out throughout Europe.
[edit] Roman provinces
- Main article: Roman province
- Roman province
- Roman Governor
- Roman road
- Roman limes
- North Africa during the Classical Period
- Roman Britain
- Roman Dacia
- Roman Egypt
- Roman Gaul
- Roman Greece
- Hispania
- Roman Italy
- Macedonia (Roman province)
- Roman Near East
| Roman Imperial Provinces (120) |  |
|---|---|
| Achaea | Aegyptus | Africa | Alpes Cottiae | Alpes Maritimae | Alpes Poenninae | Arabia Petraea | Armenia Inferior | Asia | Assyria | Bithynia | Britannia | Cappadocia | Cilicia | Commagene | Corduene[citation needed] | Corsica et Sardinia | Creta et Cyrenaica | Cyprus | Dacia | Dalmatia | Epirus | Galatia | Gallia Aquitania | Gallia Belgica | Gallia Lugdunensis | Gallia Narbonensis | Germania Inferior | Germania Superior | Hispania Baetica | Hispania Lusitania | Hispania Tarraconensis | Italia | Iudaea | Lycaonia | Lycia | Macedonia | Mauretania Caesariensis | Mauretania Tingitana | Moesia | Noricum | Numidia | Osroene | Pannonia | Pamphylia | Pisidia | Pontus | Raetia | Sicilia | Sophene | Syria | Thracia | |
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[edit] History of the Roman Empire
[edit] Age of Augustus: from Republic to Principate (31 BC - AD 14)
- Main article: Age of Augustus
[edit] Principate after Augustus (14 - 235)
- Main article: Principate
[edit] Crisis of the Third Century (235 - 284)
- Main article: Crisis of the Third Century
[edit] Dominate (284 - 395)
- Main article: Dominate
[edit] Late Empire (395 - 476)
- Main article: Late Roman Empire
[edit] Successors of the Empire (after 476)
See Also:
- Roman Emperor
- Frumentarii
- Agentes in rebus
- client kingdoms
- [[Roman client kingdoms in Britain]]
- Palmyra
- Roman limes
- Pagus (western empire!)
- Roman law
- Roman era
- Political institutions of Rome
[edit] Military history
- Main article: Military history of ancient Rome
- Roman army:
- Roman navy
- Roman wars:
- Roman military diploma
- Roman victory titles
- Roman colonies: Colonies in antiquity
[edit] Social history
- Main article: Society of ancient Rome
- Social life
- Roman naming convention
- Bathing (Thermae)
- Games
- Roman clubs
- Roman eating and drinking
- Apicius
- Sickness and health
- Antonine Plague
- Roman Funerals and Burial
- The classes
[edit] Cultural history
- Main article: Culture of Ancient Rome
- Language
- Latin
- Koine Greek
- Indigenous languages
- Religion in ancient Rome
- Traditional pantheon
- Roman mythology
- Adoption of 'new' cults: Cybele, Serapis, Isis, Mithras, etc
- Imperial cult
- Tendencies towards monotheism/henotheism
- The spread of Christianity
- Roman festivals
- Science, philosophy and oratory
- Roman numeral
[edit] The city of Rome
- Main article: History of Rome
- Buildings, monuments, and public works
- History of the City of Rome
- Pomerium
- Quarters
- Seven hills of Rome
- Cohortes urbanae
- Rome surpassed by Constantinople
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- The complete Roman Army, ISBN 0-500-05124-0, by Adrian Goldsworthy, Thames & Hudson (2003).
- The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180-395, ISBN 0-415-10058-5, by David S. Potter; Routledge, London and New York (2004).
- The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, ISBN 0-415-23944-3, by Pat Southern; Routledge, London and New York (2001).
