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Содержание 1 Болванка англоязычной версии! Редактируется 2 Детство и юность 3 Капоне в Чикаго 4 Падение Капоне 5 Смерть и наследие 6 Популизация образа 7 Ссылки 8 Френк Йель 9 Сталинизм 10 Сталинизм как политическая теория 11 Stalinist economic policy 12 Points of view on Stalinism 13 Stalinism's relationship to Leninism 13.1 Continuity theory 13.2 Discontinuity theory 13.3 Hybrid Theory 14 References 15 See also 16 External links

[править] Болванка англоязычной версии! Редактируется

Альфонс Капоне (17 января, 1899 – 25 января, 1947), известен как Альфонс "Scarface" Капоне, знаменитейший американский гангстер действовавший в 1920-х 1930-х годах на територии Чикаго (США). Под прикрытием мебельного бизнеса занимался бутлегерством, игорным бизнесом и сутенерством. Яркий представитель организованой преступности США зародившейся и существующей там под влиянием итальянской мафии

Неаполетанец приехал в Нью-Йорк со своими родителями Габриэлем и Терезой Капоне, начавши свою карьеру в Бруклине. Перед тем как переехать в Чикаго и стать самой известной и могущественной фигурой чикагского криминального мира. К концу 1920-х, ФБР поместило его в список известный как "Разыскиваються ФБР". Падение звезды Капоне началось в 1931 году когда его задержали и обвинили в неуплате налогов и сокрытии реальных доходов бизнеса.

[править] Детство и юность

Отец Капоне Габриэль (1865–1920) и его жена Тереза Райола (28 декабря, 1867–1952) переехали в Бруклин пригород Нью-Йорка, в начале XX века. Габриель был парикмахером из Кастелярмаре, небольшой деревушки всего в 25 км от Неаполя, Италия. Тереза, мать Капоне работала швеей и ее отцом был Анжело Райола из Ангри, городка в провинции Салерно.Семья Капоне имигрировала в США в 1894, и обоснавалась в Вильямсбурге предместечке Бруклина, Нью-Йорк. У Габриеля было 7 сыновей и 2 дочери:

• Винченцо Капоне (1892 –1 октября, 1952). Носил это имя до переезда в США. Он ушел из семьи в 1908 и устроился на работу в цирк, гастролировавший в то время на Дальнем Западе. Служил лейтенантом в Армии США во время Первой Мировой Войны. Изменил имя на Ричард Джозеф Харт сразу по демобилизации. Неплохо начал карьеру в Федеральном Бюро по делам Индии и позднее был переведен на руководящие должности в Хомер, штат Небраска.
• Рафаэль Капоне (1894–22 ноября, 1974). Носил это имя до переезда в США. Позднее был вовлечен в преступную деятельность своим братом Альфонсом.
• Сальваторе Капоне (1895–1 апреля, 1924). Известен как Фрэнк Капоне, был представителем Альфонса в городке где располагалась штаб-квартира банды Капоне Сисейро. Убит в перестрелке с полицией прямо на улице, т.к был уличен в ношении огнестрельного оружия и оказал вооруженное сопротивление.
• Аль Капоне (17 января, 1899–27 января, 1947).
• Эрминьо Капоне (1901–?). Известен под именем Джо, в семейных кругах "Мими". Отсидел небольшие сроки тюремного заключения за бродяжничество. Изменил фамилию на "Мартин". в 1994 году все еще здравствовал. На данный момент судьба не известна.
• Умберто Капоне (1906–1980). Известен под именем Альберт. Работал в газете Сисейро Трибьюн пренадлежавшей его брату Альфонсу. Изменил фамилию на Райола в 1942.
• Амадео Капоне (1908–31 января, 1967). Известен под именем Мэтью. Хозяин таверны.
• Роза Капоне.
• Мафальда Капоне.

Криминальная карьера Капоне началась рано: подростком он присоединился к двум бандам: Brooklyn Rippers и Forty Thieves Juniors. С ними поучаствовал в нескольких мелких преступлениях.

Капоне закончил обучение в школе в возрасте 14 лет, подравшись со своим учителем. Он проработал разнорабочим на нескольких предприятиях в предместьях Бруклина, включая кондитерский магазин и кегельбан. После он присоединился к печально известной Five Points возглавляемой Френки Йелем. Это было время когда он начал работать как бармен и временами как вышибала. Благодаря физической силе и размерам Капоне с удовольствием выполнял эту работу в убогом и злачном учереждении своего босса Йеля Harvard Inn. Именно к этому периоду жизни историки приписывают печально извесную поножовщину Капоне с бандитом и убийцей Френком Галлучио. Ссора произошла из-за сестры (по некоторым сведениям жены) Галлучио, которой очень заинтересовался темпераментный Капоне. Галлучио нанес Алю глубокую рану, с размахом полоснув своим раскладным ножом по его правой щеке. Он не подозревал, что тем самым делает историю, награждая своего врага шрамом, который запечатлеет его обладателя в криминальном мире под кличкой "Scarface" (лицо шо шрамом). В 1918 Капоне женился на Мае Куглин, ирландке, родившей ему сына (в том же году), Альберта "Сони" Капоне. Пара прожила в Бруклине целый год. В 1919 они переехали в Амитвиль, Лонг-Айленд.Капоне все еще продолжал работать на Френки Йеля и совершил по меньшей мере два убийства перед тем как отправиться в Чикаго в 1919 году. Йель послал своего протеже в Чикаго после участия того в разборке с конкурирующей бандой. Намерение Йеля было отослать подальше Капоне, что бы он немного "остыл" там и не светился лишний раз в криминальных сводках полиции Нью-Йорка; случайный переезд родил на свет одну из самых извесных криминальных карьер в новейшей американской истории...

[править] Капоне в Чикаго

The Capone family moved to a small, unassuming house at 7244 South Prairie Avenue in the Chicago suburb of Cicero that would serve as Al Capone's first headquarters. Initially, Capone took up grunt work with Johnny Torrio's outfit, but the elder Torrio immediately recognized Capone's talents and by 1922 Capone was Torrio's second in command, responsible for much of the gambling, alcohol, and prostitution rackets in the city of Chicago. One of his greatest triumphs was the seizure of the region of Cicero in 1924. It became known as one of the most crooked elections in Chicago's long history with voters threatened at the polling station by thugs. His mayoral candidate won by a huge majority but it was only weeks later he claimed he would run Capone out of town. In order to counter this Capone met with his puppet-mayor and personally knocked him down the town hall steps. It was a powerful assertion of gangster power and a huge victory for the Torrio-Capone alliance. The event was marred however by the murder of Frank Capone at the hands of the police. It broke his brother's heart. Unshaven (a gangster form of mourning), Capone cried openly at the funeral and ordered the closure of all the speakeasies in Cicero for a day as a mark of respect.

Severely injured in an assassination attempt in 1925, the shaken Torrio returned to Italy and gave the reins of the business to Capone. Capone was notorious during the Prohibition era for his control of the Chicago underworld and his bitter rivalries with gangsters such as Bugs Moran and Hymie Weiss. Raking in vast amounts of money from illegal gambling, prostitution, and alcohol (some estimates were that between 1925 and 1930 Capone was making $100 million a year), the Chicago kingpin was largely immune to prosecution due to witness intimidation and the bribing of city officials, such as Chicago mayor William "Big Bill" Hale Thompson. Capone was reputed to have several other retreats and hideouts including French Lick, Indiana, Dubuque, Iowa, Hot Springs, Arkansas, Johnson City, Tennessee, and Lansing, Michigan.

In 1928, Capone bought a retreat on Palm Island, Florida. It was shortly after this purchase that he orchestrated seven of the most notorious gangland killings of the century, the 1929 St. Valentine's Day Massacre. Although details of the massacre are still in dispute, and no person has ever been charged or prosecuted for the crime, the killings are generally linked to Capone and his henchmen, especially Jack "Machine Gun" McGurn, who is thought to have led the operation. By staging the massacre, Capone was trying to dispose of his arch-rival Bugs Moran, who controlled gang operations on the North Side of Chicago. Moran himself was late for the meeting and escaped otherwise certain death.

Throughout the 1920s, Capone himself was often the target of attempted murders, being shot at once in a restaurant and having his car riddled with bullets from nose to tail on more than one occasion. However the assassins were normally amateurs and Capone was never himself wounded.

[править] Падение Капоне

Although Capone always did his business through front men and had no accounting records (which are receipts) (his mansion was in his wife's name), Al Alcini started linking him to his earnings. New laws enacted in 1927 allowed the federal government to pursue Capone on tax evasion, their best chance of finally convicting him. Part of the reason Capone was taken to task in this way was his status as a celebrity. On the advice of his publicist he did not hide from the media by the mid twenties and began to make public appearances. When Charles Lindbergh performed his famous trans-atlantic flight in 1927 Capone was among the first to push forward and shake his hand upon his arrival in Chicago. He gained a great deal of admiration from many of the poor in Chicago for his flagrant disregard of the prohibition law that they all despised. He was viewed for a time as a loveable outlaw, partially due to his extravagant generosity to strangers. His night club the Cotton Club became a hot-spot for hot new acts such as Charlie Parker and Bing Crosby. He was often cheered in the street and it was only the brutal murders of the St Valentines day massacre and the 1929 crash that made people view him once again as a killer and social parasite. This was despite Capone's opening of soup kitchens in Chicago's poorest suburbs. Pursuing Capone were Treasury agent Eliot Ness and his hand picked team of incorruptible U.S. Treasury agents "The Untouchables" and IRS agent Frank Wilson, who was able to find receipts linking Capone to illegal gambling income and evasion of taxes on that income.

The trial and indictment occurred in 1931. The Alcinis tried to help Capone but he pleaded guilty to the charges, hoping for a plea bargain. But, after the judge refused his lawyer's offers and Capone's associates failed to bribe or tamper with the jury, Al Capone was found guilty on five of twenty-two counts and sentenced to eleven years in a federal prison.

Capone was first sent to an Atlanta prison in 1932. However, the mobster was still able to control most of his interests from this facility, and he was ordered to be transferred to the infamous California island prison of Alcatraz in August of 1934. Here, Capone was strictly guarded and prohibited from any contact with the outside world. With the repeal of Prohibition and the arrest and confinement of its leader, the Capone empire soon began to wither. Capone entered Alcatraz with his usual confidence. His "friends" who were in fact people who feared him rather than liked him had mostly gone straight with families and kept away from crime. When Al Capone returned these friends tried to stay well clear of him or simply agreed to do as he asked, then not do it. Capone half beat to death one of his "best-friends" due to him defying Capone. A phrase said by Capone at this time was "respect is what makes relationships work". However, when he attempted to bribe guards that would previously accept this act due to his reputation, he would find himself sent to the "hole", or solitary confinement. Eventually Capone's mental state began to deteriorate. One example of his erratic behavior was that he would make his bed and then undo it, continuing this pattern for hours. Sometimes, Capone did not even want to leave his cell at all, crouching in a corner of his cell and talking to himself in gibberish. He began telling people that he was being haunted by the ghost of James Clark, a victim in the St. Valentine's Day Massacre, paranormal investigators were even sent in to observe him and the surroundings, even they deemed Capone mentally unhealthy. It was apparent over time that Capone no longer posed any threat of resuming his previous gangster-related activities.

[править] Смерть и наследие

Once he had been imprisoned, Capone's control and interests within organized crime immediately ran into rapid decline. It is often thought that Capone's mental health decline during his imprisonment was attributed to the breakdown of both his power and income; both Capone's physical and mental health was seen to notably decline; most noticably an onset of dementia most likely caused by an elongated infection of syphilis, untreated since it was contracted in his youth as well as noticable weight loss. He spent the final year of his 11 year sentence as a resident of the Baltimore State Mental Institution before retiring to his estate in Miami, Florida.

On January 21, 1947, he had an apoplectic stroke. He regained consciousness and started to feel better until pneumonia set in on January 24. The next day he died from cardiac arrest. Capone was originally buried in Mount Olivet Cemetery, in Chicago's far South Side between the graves of his father, Gabriele, and brother, Frank; however, in March 1950 the remains of all three family members were moved to Mount Carmel Cemetery in Hillside, Illinois, west of Chicago.

[править] Популизация образа

One of the most notorious American gangsters of the 20th century, Capone has been the subject of numerous articles, books, and films. He has been portrayed on screen by Nicholas Kokenes, Wallace Beery, Paul Muni, Barry Sullivan, Rod Steiger, Neville Brand, Jason Robards, Ben Gazzara, Robert De Niro, William Devane, and William Forsythe. Capone and his era were highlighted in the 1959 television film The Untouchables and its feature film and television series remakes which has created the popular myth of the personal war between the crime lord and Eliot Ness. He was also featured as an off-screen character (in a deleted scene that was added to the DVD release) in the 2002 film Road to Perdition, the comic book, Tintin in America as the only real person to ever appear in The Adventures of Tintin in character and as a Possesor in Peter F. Hamilton's The Night's Dawn Trilogy science fiction novels. In The Radio Adventures of Dr. Floyd, Capone was toyed with in a very humorous episode. Capone is also the subject of the Prince Buster song Al Capone and is also the namesake of Rancid's Young Al Capone. On a recent album cover, artist Sufjan Stevens placed Capone alongside Superman and a Chicago cityscape as representative of Illinois. Capone also plays a role in the famous gangster novel "The Godfather," where he figures into Vito Corleone's past. In the Godfather he is portrayed as a ruthless man, but one without tact.

Tunnels found under the city of Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan are said to have been another hideout of Capone's. The anfractuous tunnels are a very popular tourist attraction, due in part to the alleged link to Capone.

[править] Ссылки

• Капоне в 1900—1930
• Файлы по Капоне в архиве ФБР
• Могила Капоне
• Немного о его брате Винченцо
• Статья по братьям Капоне
• Al Capone(англ.) на сайте Internet Movie Database

[править] Френк Йель

Francesco Ioele (1885/1893 - July 1, 1928), better known as Frankie Uale or Yale, was a Brooklyn gangster and original employer of Al Capone, before the latter moved to Chicago to start his own gang. An early friend of Johnny Torrio, Yale took over all New York operations when Torrio moved his base to Chicago. Frankie Yale's headquarters was at a bar in Brooklyn named the Harvard Inn. It was here that Al Capone worked for several years between 1916 and 1919. Yale took part in several mob hits in the city of Chicago, notably those of "Big Jim" Colosimo and Dion O'Banion. Later, Frankie Yale himself was gunned down on the streets of Manhattan. Capone and Yale began distrusting each other as the 1920's dragged on, and Yale was the victim of a Capone hit. Yale's murder on the streets of New York during the morning of Sunday, July 1, 1928, was widely suspected to be the work of John Scalise, Albert Anselmi, and Jack "Machine Gun" McGurn. It was also the first New York murder using a Thompson submachine gun.

[править] Сталинизм

Сталинизм - политическая и экономическая система названая в честь Иосифа Сталина, который внедрил ее в Советском Союзе. Включает в себя широкое использование пропаганды для установление культа личности вокруг абсолютного диктатора, так же как и широкое применение спецслужб для удержания социального подчинения, покорности.

Впервые термин "Сталинизм" был использован Лазарем Кагановичем, однако он никогда не использовался самим Сталиным, который любил говорить о себе как о марксисте - ленинце и указывал на то что он всего лишь "ученик Ленина", хотя никогда напрямую не выступал против использования этого термина своими коллегами по партии. ^{[Источник?]}

Как и другие "-измы", термин может быть использован как характеристика государств, политических партий, или идеологических убеждений, в особенности "Анти - Ревизионизм". Так же иногда может использоваться как выражение описывающее политиков и политические группы, Коммунистические или не комунистические, которые рассматриваються как особенно авторитарные.

В узком смысле используется по отношению к странам, политическая система которых во многом напоминала политическую систему СССР времён Сталина (например, к режимам Ким Ир Сена и Ким Чен Ира в КНДР, Хо Ши Мина и Ле Зуана во Вьетнаме, и др.)

[править] Сталинизм как политическая теория

"Сталинизм", собственно говоря, более относиться к интерпретации стиля управления чем к идеологии.

Термин «Сталинизм» используется анти-коммунистами, коммунистами (Радикальными левыми коммунистами, троцкистами), и даже про-сталински настроенными Марксистами дабы указать на ответвление коммунистической теории которая доминировала в СССР и в странах сателитах Советского Союза, во время правления Сталина. The term used in the Soviet Union and by most who uphold its legacy, however, is "Marxism-Leninism", reflecting that Stalin himself was not a theoretician, but a communicator who wrote several books in language easily understood, in contrast to Marx and Lenin, and prided himself on maintaining the legacy of Lenin as a founding father for the Soviet Union and the future Socialist world. Stalinism is of the order of an interpretation of their ideas, and a certain political system claiming to apply those ideas in ways fitting the changing needs of society, as with the transition from "socialism at a snail's pace" in the mid-twenties to the rapid industrialization of the Five-Year Plans. Sometimes, although rarely, the compound terms "Marxism-Leninism-Stalinism" (used by the Brazilian MR-8), or teachings of Marx/Engels/Lenin/Stalin, are used to show the alleged heritage and succession. Simultaneously, however, many people professing Marxism or Leninism view Stalinism as a perversion of their ideas; Trotskyists, in particular, are virulently anti-Stalinist, considering Stalinism a counter-revolutionary policy using Marxism to achieve power.

С 1917 до 1924, Ленин, Троцкий, и Сталин часто казались едины в своих воззрениях на теорию марксизма, однако, фактически, их идеологические противоречия никогда не пропадали.

В своих спорах с Троцким, Сталин отрицал роль рабочих в развитых капиталистических странах (например, он отмечал в своих тезисах что рабочий класс в США являеться буржуализированной рабочей аристократией. Также, Сталин противостоял Троцкому в теории о роли крестьянства, приводя в пример Китай, whereas Trotsky wanted urban insurrection and not peasant-based guerrilla warfare.

The main contributions of Stalin to communist theory were:

• Socialism in One Country,
• The theory of aggravation of the class struggle along with the development of socialism, a theoretical base supporting the repression of political opponents as necessary.

Stalinism has been described as being synonymous with totalitarianism, or a tyrannical regime. The term has been used to describe regimes that fight political dissent through violence, imprisonment, and killings.

[править] Stalinist economic policy

At the end of the 1920's Stalin launched a wave of radical economic policies, which completely overhauled the industrial and agricultural face of the Soviet Union. This came to be known as the 'Great Turn' as Russia turned away from the near-capitalist New Economic Policy. The NEP had been implemented by Lenin in order to ensure the survival of the Communist state following seven years of war (1914-1921, WW1 from 1914 to 1917, and the subsequent Civil War) and had rebuilt Soviet production to its 1913 levels. However, Russia still lagged far behind the West, and the NEP was felt by Stalin and the majority of the Communist party, not only to be compromising Communist ideals, but also not delivering sufficient economic performance, as well as not creating the envisaged Socialist society. It was therefore necessary to increase the pace of industrialisation in order to catch up with the West.

Rapid industrialisation was necessary for a number of reasons, both practical and ideological, the overriding aim of which was to make Russia a force to be reckoned with on the world stage.

1. To increase military strength: The fact that Russia was essentially still based upon a backward agrarian economy, whilst her Western capitalist rivals were fully industrialized, rendered Russia vulnerable to attack. The lack of any natural boundaries (other than the great distances involved) as well as the extremely long border, essentially meant that in the event of invasion, any attacking force could rapidly converge upon the comparatively small industrial center focused around Moscow. It was therefore necessary to establish an eastern industrial base, beyond the Urals, that could continue the Soviet war effort in event of Moscow's capture. However, even before this could take place, it would be necessary to establish industry capable of producing armaments of sufficient quantity and quality to fight a modern war.

2. To achieve self-sufficiency: Russia's backward economy also meant that she was reliant on expensive imports for industrially manufactured goods, especially the heavy industrial plant required for industrial production. The USSR required its own industrial base to produce goods for its own people. However, this also necessitated an increase in grain production, as surplus grain would be required for export in order to provide foreign currency with which to buy the basis of an industrialized economy, as well as the initial raw materials needed to fuel it. The problem was that, once again, the nature of the economy meant that industrialization was in the hands of the peasants. If there was a poor harvest, industrialization could not go ahead, as whilst the peasants required grain for themselves, they also had to support the burgeoning urban population, as well as provide aforementioned surplus grain for export. Stalin made use of the Collectivization of agriculture in order to effectively finance the industrial drive. The process of Collectivization was not a peaceful one. Resistance was met by the soviet authorities, specially coming from the wealthy rural farmers ("Kulaks"), with which Stalin dealt harshly.

3. The Move towards a Socialist society: According to Marxist theory, socialism could only exist in a highly industrialized state, where the overwhelming majority of the population were workers. However, in 1928 approximately 20% of the population were workers. Also, Stalin wanted to prove the Socialist system to be at least the equal of the capitalism, not just in terms of industrial output, but also in terms of living standards. The overriding aim of this would be to present Communism as a viable alternative to any capitalist form of government.

4. Personal Motivation: During the struggle over power that ensued following Lenin's death, Stalin had to prove himself as Lenin's equal and successor. Economic policy was central to this, as an economic transformation of the USSR would establish him as a leader of great importance.

A series of three five-year plans massively expanded the Soviet economy. Large increases occurred in many sectors, especially in coal, pig iron and steel production. Society made great strides towards catching up from decades-long backwardness to the West within thirty years in key industrial areas, according to some statistical measurements. Some economic historians now believe it to be the fastest economic growth rate ever achieved, although the accompanying social costs and long term economic results are highly debatable. Because of the perceived prestige and influence of the successful Russian revolution, many countries throughout the 20th century saw the politico-economic model developed in the USSR as an attractive alternative to the existing systems in place, often perceived as "market economy" systems, and took steps to follow the USSR's example. This included both revolutionary regimes and post-colonial states in the developing world.

[править] Points of view on Stalinism

After Stalin's death in 1953, his successor Nikita Khrushchev repudiated his policies, condemned Stalin's cult of personality in his Secret Speech to the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956, and instituted destalinization and liberalisation (within the same political framework). Consequently, most of the world's Communist parties, who previously adhered to Stalinism, abandoned it and, to a greater or lesser degree, adopted the moderately reformist positions of Khruschchev.

The notable exceptions were North Korea under Kim Il-sung and the People's Republic of China, under Mao Zedong. Kim simply purged the North Korean Communist party of de-Stalinization advocates, either executing them or forcing them into exile or labor camps.^[1] Under Mao, the People's Republic grew antagonistic towards the new Soviet leadership's "revisionism", resulting in the Sino-Soviet Split in 1960. Subsequently, China independently pursued the ideology of Maoism, which still largely supported the legacy of Stalin and his policies. Albania took the Chinese party's side in the Sino-Soviet Split and remained committed, at least theoretically, to its brand of Stalinism for decades thereafter, under the leadership of Enver Hoxha. The ouster of Khruschev in 1964 by his former party-state allies has been described as a Stalinist restoration, epitomized by the Brezhnev Doctrine and the apparatchik/nomenklatura "stability of cadres," lasting until the hyper-revisionist Gorbachev period of glasnost and perestroika in the late 1980s and the fall of Soviet communism itself.

Some historians draw parallels between Stalinism and the economic policy of Tsar Peter the Great. Both men desperately wanted Russia to catch up to the western European states. Both succeeded to an extent, turning Russia temporarily into Europe's leading power. Others compare Stalin with Ivan IV of Russia, with his policies of oprichnina and restriction of the liberties of common people.

Trotskyists argue that the "Stalinist USSR" was not socialist (and certainly not communist), but a bureaucratized degenerated workers' state—that is, a non-capitalist state in which exploitation is controlled by a ruling caste which, although not owning the means of production and not constituting a social class in its own right, accrued benefits and privileges at the expense of the working class. Left communists like CLR James and the Italian autonomists, as well as unorthodox Trotskyists like Tony Cliff have described Stalinism as state capitalism, a form of capitalism where the state takes the role of capital. Milovan Đilas argues that a New Class arose under Stalinism, a theory also put forward by various liberal theorists. Some in the Third Camp use bureaucratic collectivism as a theory to critique Stalinist forms of government.

[править] Stalinism's relationship to Leninism

The relationship between Stalinism and Leninism is disputed. "Continuity theorists" believe that Stalinism was the logical conclusion of Leninism, and that there are more similarities than differences between the two. Others argue that Stalinism marked a fundamental break with the legacy of Lenin and Marxism-Leninism as practised up to that point.

[править] Continuity theory

Supporters of the view that Stalinism emerged from Leninism point to a number of areas of alleged continuity. For example, Lenin put a ban on factions within the Communist Party and introduced the one-party state in 1921 - a move that enabled Stalin to get rid of his rivals easily after Lenin's death. Moreover, Lenin used to purge his party of “unfaithful” Communists, a method used extensively by Stalin during the 1930s.

Under Lenin’s rule terror was used to suppress opposition. For that function the Cheka was set up in December 1917. Felix Dzerzhinsky, its leader, exclaimed with some enthusiasm: “We stand for organized terror – this should be frankly stated”. Western authorities estimate that by 1924 the Cheka had executed more than 250,000 people. The number of labour camps increased from 80 in 1919 to 315 by 1923. ^{[Источник?]}

Another important step of Lenin was to appoint Stalin to the key position of general secretary. The power of that post enabled him to appoint, dismiss or promote party members on all levels and thus provided his later power base.

The radical methods of Stalin’s modernisation program were also not entirely his invention, they were mainly the further development of Lenin’s war communism. This policy was characterised by extensive nationalisation, the forceful grain collection from the countryside and harsh direction of labour. Labour discipline was draconian and lateness and absenteeism were punished severely. All workers were subjected to army style control. All those features can also be found in Stalin’s economic policy.

Finally, proponents of this view argue that the top-down, dictatorial government established by Lenin lacked essential checks and balances, and that this left the system open to abuse by ruthless politicians such as Stalin. In this view, Lenin's death left a power vacuum which allowed the most brutal of his successors to successfully gain power through manipulation and intrigue.

On the whole, according to this theory, Lenin’s policies developed a totalitarian regime, which was later on radicalised by Stalin. Thus both ideologies can be seen as a continuous development.

[править] Discontinuity theory

The historians who support Discontinuity theory claim that Leninism and Stalinism were two opposing ideologies. They point out that Leninism was a much more flexible style of politics, whereas Stalin introduced a totally “orthodox” regime. According to them Lenin was head of a revolutionary proletariat dictatorship and Stalin imposed his own totalitarian one. Lenin wanted to keep state influence low and called for the “withering away” of the worker’s state as soon as possible after the revolution. But Stalin enlarged the power of the state until it was dominating every aspect of Soviet life.

In addition, proponents of the discontinuity theory state that Lenin always wanted to keep a revolutionary form of democracy. His party originated from a multi-party state and contained many different groups and factions under his rule. Discontinuity theory proponents feel that it was Stalin who made it a monolithic block that only carried out his directives. In their view, Lenin saw the ban on factions and opposition parties only as a preliminary measure and a distortion of the Communist ideology, on the other hand, Stalin misused it to attack his personal and political enemies. However, in his authoritative biography of Lenin, Robert Service argues against the portrayal of the Bolshevik/communist party under Lenin as having been extremely democratic.

Proponents of the discontinuity approach emphasise that Lenin’s terror differed both in quantity and quality from Stalin’s terror. Lenin let defeated opponents go to exile and never attempted to kill his party comrades. The number of affected people never reached the massive scale it did under Stalin. Furthermore, Lenin ended the Red terror and restricted the Cheka’s powers after the civil war.

Another very important shift of Lenin was the introduction of the NEP in place of the old war communism. Thus he steered a very moderate course in economic policies, which was totally different from Stalin’s brutal super-industrialisation programme.

Besides, the appointment of Stalin to general secretary did not mean too much, because that post was unimportant at that time and no other party leader wanted it then. Later on Lenin even wanted to remove Stalin from that post when he realised the danger of a totalitarian dictatorship. He formulated his fears in his political testament:

“Comrade Stalin, having become General Secretary has immeasurable power concentrated in his hands, and I am not sure that he always knows how to use that power with sufficient control” (24 December 1922)

“Stalin is too rude, and this fault, entirely acceptable in relations between communists, becomes completely unacceptable in the office of General Secretary. Therefore I propose to the comrades that a way be found to remove Stalin from that post and replace him with someone else who differs from Stalin in all respects, someone more patient, more loyal, more polite, more considerate.” (postscript of 4 January 1923)

Between December 1922 and January 1923 Lenin looked for the support of Trotsky against Stalin and his associates. He opposed Stalin’s views on the state monopoly of foreign trade and especially his nationality policies in Georgia. Further Lenin wanted to reduce bureaucracy and restore inner party democracy.

Apart from that clear wish to dismiss Stalin from his post of general secretary Lenin envisaged an oligarchic rule of the party under the leadership of Trotsky after his death^{[Источник?]}. He was definitely opposed to the prospect of a dictatorship of one person. In fact it was much more likely that Bukharin or especially Trotsky would become the new leaders of the party. Stalin just came to power because of failures of his rivals, well-planned intrigues and because of luck. Thus Stalinism is by far not the logical conclusion of Leninism for the discontinuity theorists.

[править] Hybrid Theory

Some theorists ^{[Источник?]} argue that the continuity and discontinuity theories are not mutually exclusive. They argue that while Lenin laid the groundwork for a totalitarian system of government, citing forced labor camps, secret police, and a one-party state, he never intended for these institutions to be used as they were by Stalin, who broke with the principles of Leninism.

Despite this, advocates of the hybrid theory feel that with the groundwork in place for gross abuses of power in the Soviet Union come 1924, at Lenin's death, it was unrealistic for this structure of government to remain in place without it being abused for the benefit of an individual. Thereby, it is argued that Stalinism is both the logical conclusion of Leninism, although it is indeed a fundamental break with the principles of Marxism-Leninism.

[править] References

• Vincent Barnett, "Understanding Stalinism: The 'Orwellian Discrepancy' and the 'Rational Choice Dictator'," Europe-Asia Studies, vol. 58, no. 3, May 2006 (online abstract).
• Alan Bullock, Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives, Goldmann
• Isaak Deutscher, Stalin: A Political Biography, Dietz, 1990
• Philip Ingram, Russia and the USSR 1905 – 1991, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1997
• Lankov, Andrei N., Crisis in North Korea: The Failure of De-Stalinization, 1956. Honolulu:Hawaii University Press (2004)
• Boris Souvarine, Stalin: A Critical Survey of Bolshevism, Alliance Book, 1939
• Robert Service, Lenin: A Biography, Belknap Press, 2002 ISBN 0-330-49139-3
• Robert Service. Stalin: A Biography, Belknap Press, 2005 ISBN 0-674-01697-1
• Allan Todd, The European Dictatorships: Hitler, Stalin, Mussolini, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2003
• John Traynor, Challenging History: Europe 1890 – 1990, Nelson Thornes Ltd, Cheltenham, 2002

[править] See also

• Joseph Stalin
• Stalin Society
• History of the Soviet Union
• Cult of personality
• List of Stalinists
• Anti-Revisionism
• Maoism
• Anti-Stalinist left

[править] External links

• Stalin, Joseph V. Stalin Reference Archive at Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved May 11, 2005.
• Brooks, Andy "a tribute to the life of Joseph Stalin
• Blunden, Andy Stalinism: Its Origins & Future.
• Strong, Anna L. The Stalin Era.
• List of Stalinist Parties/Groups
• Bill Bland on 'Stalinism'
• Ludo Martens Another View of Stalin
• Martin Thomas Stalinism and state capitalism

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