Star of Bethlehem
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- See also Star of Bethlehem (plant).
The Star of Bethlehem, also called the Christmas Star or the Jesus Star, was an object in the sky which revealed the birth of Jesus to the magi and later led them to a house[1] where they found the child Jesus and his mother, according to the nativity narratives in the New Testament.[2] The magi were men "from the east" who were inspired by the appearance of the star to travel to Jerusalem in search of a "king of the Jews".[3] There they met King Herod of Judea, who advised them that the child they sought was in Bethlehem, a nearby village. The magi then went to Bethlehem, found Jesus, paid him homage, gave gifts, and returned to their "own country."[4]
Christians regarded the star as a miraculous sign given by God to mark the birth of the Christ (or Messiah). Ancient theologians claimed that the star fulfilled several prophecies, including the Star Prophecy. In modern times, astronomers have proposed various explanations for the star, including a nova, a planet, a comet, an occultation, and a conjunction (massing of planets). The subject is a favorite at planetarium shows during the Christmas season,[5] although the Biblical account suggests that the visit of the magi took place at least several months after Jesus was born.[6] The visit was traditionally celebrated on Epiphany.[7]
Contents |
[edit] Biblical narrative
The Gospel of Matthew states that "wise men" (Koine Greek magoi) arrived at the court of Herod in Jerusalem and told the king of the star:
| “ | In the time of King Herod, after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea, wise men from the East came to Jerusalem, asking, Where is the child who has been born king of the Jews? For we observed his star at its rising,[8] and have come to pay him homage. When King Herod heard this, he was frightened, and all Jerusalem with him; and calling together all the chief priests and scribes of the people, he inquired of them where the Messiah was to be born.[9] | ” |
The statement that Herod was "frightened" by what the magi said has led some readers to conclude that Herod did not know of the star before the magi arrived. However, a close reading suggests that Herod was frightened by their statement that the "king of the Jews" had been born rather than by the star itself. He understood this phrase to refer to the Messiah, a leader of the Jewish people whose coming was foretold in Old Testament prophecy. So he asked his advisors where the Messiah could be born.[10] They answered Bethlehem, birthplace of King David, and quoted the prophet Micah.[11] The king passed this information along to the magi.[12]
| “ | Then Herod secretly called for the wise men and learned from them the exact time when the star had appeared. Then he sent them to Bethlehem, saying, Go and search diligently for the child; and when you have found him, bring me word so that I may also go and pay him homage. When they had heard the king, they set out; and there, ahead of them, went the star that they had seen at its rising, until it stopped over the place where the child was. When they saw that the star had stopped, they were overwhelmed with joy.[13] | ” |
Matthew's account suggests that the magi knew from the star that the "king of the Jews" had already been born even before they arrived in Jerusalem. According to the Gospel of Luke, Jesus was born in a stable.[14] By the time the magi arrived, Jesus was a child (paidion), not an infant (brephos) and he was living in a house with his mother.[15] The magi presented Jesus with gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh.[16]
In a dream, the magi were warned not to return to Jerusalem, so they "left for their own country by another road."[17] When Herod realized that he had been tricked, he ordered the execution of all male children in Bethlehem age 2 and under, based on the information the magi had given him concerning the time the star first appeared.[18]
[edit] Interpretations and explanations
[edit] A fulfillment of prophecy
Matthew is written in a traditional Jewish style called pesharim, which emphasized the fulfillment of prophecy. The ancients believed that astronomical phenomena were connected to terrestrial events. Miracles were routinely associated with the birth of important people, including the Hebrew patriarchs, as well as Greek and Roman heroes.[19] The Star Prophecy[20] in the Book of Numbers was well-known at the time that Matthew was written. It was cited by Josephus in reference to Emperor Vespasian.[21] Origen, one of the most influential early Christian theologians, discussed the connection between this prophecy and the Star of Bethlehem:
| “ | If, then, at the commencement of new dynasties, or on the occasion of other important events, there arises a comet so called, or any similar celestial body, why should it be matter of wonder that at the birth of Him who was to introduce a new doctrine to the human race, and to make known His teaching not only to Jews, but also to Greeks, and to many of the barbarous nations besides, a star should have arisen? Now I would say, that with respect to comets there is no prophecy in circulation to the effect that such and such a comet was to arise in connection with a particular kingdom or a particular time; but with respect to the appearance of a star at the birth of Jesus there is a prophecy of Balaam recorded by Moses to this effect: There shall arise a star out of Jacob, and a man shall rise up out of Israel.[22] | ” |
Matthew's use of the word magi connects the visitors to the magi of Babylon who selected Daniel their chief in the Book of Daniel.[23] The word is usually translated as "wise men" and refers to a person with the gift of interpreting dreams and other portents. Daniel was revered by Jews for a prophecy he made concerning the Messiah.[24] If the magi knew of Jewish prophecy, from Daniel or elsewhere, they could have "conjectured that the man whose appearance had been foretold along with that of the star, had actually come into the world," according to Origen.[25]
While Origen argued for a naturalistic explanation, John Chrysostom viewed the star as purely miraculous: "How then, tell me, did the star point out a spot so confined, just the space of a manger and shed, unless it left that height and came down, and stood over the very head of the young child? And at this the evangelist was hinting when he said, Lo, the star went before them, till it came and stood over where the young Child was."[26]
The magi's choice of gifts and their trip to Jerusalem also fulfill Old Testament prophecy. Isaiah prophesied a visit to "Zion" (Jerusalem) by gentiles.[27] Gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh[15] are specifically mentioned in the Septuagint (Greek translation).[28]
[edit] An astronomical object
Because the magi told Herod that they saw the star "at its rising,"[29] many readers have concluded that it was an astronomical object. Although there is no basis for the often repeated claim that the Greek text specifies a predawn, or heliacal, rising[5] it would be odd if professional stargazers felt the need to mention an ordinary nightly rising.
According to Origen, the star was in "the nature of those celestial bodies which appear at times, such as comets, or those meteors which resemble beams of wood, or beards, or wine jars."[30]
In 1614, German astronomer Johannes Kepler determined that a series of three conjunctions of the planets Jupiter and Saturn occurred in 7 BC and linked this event to the Star of Bethlehem.[31] Although conjunctions were important in astrology, Kepler was not thinking in astrological terms. He argued that a planetary conjunction could create a nova, which he linked to the Star of Bethlehem.[31] Modern calculations show that there was always a large gap between the two planets, so these conjunctions were not visually impressive. An ancient almanac has been found in Babylon which covers the events of this period, but it makes no specific reference to the conjunctions.[32]
Chinese and Korean stargazers observed an object thought to be a nova or a comet around 5 BC.[33] This object was observed for over seventy days with no movement recorded.[33] Ancient writers described comets as "hanging over" specific cities, just as the Star of Bethlehem was said to have "stood over" the "place" where Jesus was (presumably the town of Bethlehem).[34] This phrase was not used to describe other astronomical objects, so perhaps the tail of a comet was thought to point to a specific terrestrial location.
Another Star of Bethlehem candidate is Uranus, which was visible at various times. However, it probably moved too slowly to be recognized as a planet.[35]
[edit] An astrological event
The use of the phrase "king of the Jews" by the magi has led many writers to link the Star of Bethlehem to astrology. In Hellenistic astrology, Jupiter was the king planet and Regulus was the king star.[36] As they traveled from Jerusalem to Bethlehem, the star "went before" the magi and then "stood over" the place where Jesus was. In astrological interpretations, these phrases are said to refer to retrograde motion and to stationing, i.e. Jupiter appeared to reverse course for a time, then stopped, and finally resumed its normal progression[37] (This assumes that the magi had an instrument equivalent to an astrolabe that allowed them to detect to the motion of a planet between one night and the next.)
In 3-2 BC, there was a series of seven conjunctions, including three between Jupiter and Regulus and a strikingly close conjunction between Jupiter and Venus on June 17, 2 BC.[38] "The fusion of two planets would have been a rare and awe-inspiring event," according to an influential paper by Roger Sinnott.[39]
Astronomer Michael Molnar has proposed a link between a double occultation of Jupiter by the moon in 6 BC in Aries and the Star of Bethlehem.[40] This event was quite close to the sun and would have been difficult to observe, even with a small telescope.[41] Occultations of planets by the moon are quite common, but Firmicus Maternus, an astrologer to Roman Emperor Constantine, wrote that an occultation of Jupiter in Aries was a sign of the birth of a divine king.[42] "When the royal star of Zeus, the planet Jupiter, was in the east this was the most powerful time to confer kingships. Furthermore, the Sun was in Aries where it is exalted. And the Moon was in very close conjunction with Jupiter in Aries," Molnar wrote.[40] This set of conditions reoccurs every sixty years.[40]
A modern and exclusively astrological interpretation of Matthew's account of the star, based on the magi's role as astrologers, "decodes" the Star of Bethlehem as a rare celestial configuration that was visible only to the magi. The "star" was revealed in an astrological chart dated March 2, 5 BC. [43]
[edit] A historical fiction
Matthew is the only one of the four gospels which mentions either the Star of Bethlehem or the magi. The Gospel of Mark and the Q material in Luke and Matthew, considered to be the oldest and most historical material in the gospels under the doctrine of Markan priority,[44] do not include a nativity narrative or any hint that Jesus was born in Bethlehem.[45] The highly publicized Jesus Seminar, sponsored by the Westar Institute, concluded that both of the nativity narratives[2] are almost entirely unhistorical and that Jesus was probably born in Nazareth rather than in Bethlehem.[46] (Other scholars have suggested Capernaum.)[47]
As there are no records of failed magi searches, the magi in Matthew seem to have witnessed an event that allowed them to determine with certainty that a king had been born.[34] But a nova, a comet, or a conjunction would not qualify as a unique event. Moreover, several of the astronomical explanations that have been put forward are equally plausible as birth signifiers.[34] The magi traveled a great distance, but when they arrive in Bethlehem they merely gave some gifts. They served the storyteller's purpose of glorifying Jesus, but their motives remain obscure.
Instead of focusing on the events around the time of the birth of Jesus, the historical fiction approach considers what sources were available to Matthew when he composed his gospel (AD 85-90) and what events might have influenced his thinking. His description of the miracles and portents attending the birth of Jesus echoed stories concerning the birth of Augustus (63 BC), the first Roman emperor.[48] Linking a birth to the first appearance of a star was consistent with the popular belief each person's life was linked to a particular star.[49] Magi and astronomical events were linked in the public mind by the visit to Rome of a delegation of magi at the time of a spectacular appearance of Halley's Comet in AD 66.[34] This delegation was led by King Tiridates of Armenia, who came seeking confirmation of his title from Emperor Nero. Ancient historian Dio Cassius wrote that, "The King did not return by the route he had following in coming,"[34] a line echoed in Matthew's account.[50]
[edit] Determining the year Jesus was born
Which event is most plausible as an explanation of the Star of Bethlehem depends on which year is accepted as the year Jesus was born. Both Luke and Matthew wrote that Jesus was born when Herod was king. According to Josephus, Herod died shortly after a lunar eclipse. This is usually identified as the eclipse of March 13, 4 BC. Jesus was born sometime between the first appearance of the Star of Bethlehem and the time the magi arrived in Herod's court. As Herod ordered the execution of boys age 2 and under, the star must have made its first appearance within the previous two years. This line of reasoning yields a date of 6-4 BC for the nativity.
One problem with the 6-4 BC date is that there was no census at that time, a key element in Luke's nativity narrative. Some modern authors identify Luke's worldwide census with a mass oath taking that occurred in 3-2 BC when Augustus was given the title "father of the nation."[5] Luke wrote that Jesus was "about thirty" when he began his ministry in AD 29,[51] which yields a birth year of 3-2 BC.[52] There were also two lunar eclipses in 1 BC, so it is possible that Herod died at that time.[53] However, coins issued by Herod's successors show that they dated their reigns as beginning in 4 BC.[54]
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ Matthew 2:11
- ^ a b Matthew 2 and Luke 2:1-20.
- ^ Matthew 2:1-2
- ^ Matthew 2:11-12
- ^ a b c Mosley, John, "Common Errors in 'Star of Bethlehem' Planetarium Shows", Planetarian, Third Quarter 1981.
- ^ Matthew 2:11. When the magi enter the house, Jesus is a "child" and is with his mother. Thus the forty day confinement period prescribed by Jewish law has already passed.
- ^ Epiphany Sermon, Rev. John Ratti, The Episcopal Church
- ^ The King James Version (1611) reads "star in the East".
- ^ Matthew 2:1-4 New Revised Standard Version (1989).
- ^ Matthew 2:4.
- ^ Matthew 2:5-6. The Old Testament version of this prophecy can be found at Micah 5:2-4.
- ^ Matthew 2:8.
- ^ Matthew 2:7-10.
- ^ Luke 2:7.
- ^ a b Matthew 2:11
- ^ Matthew 2:11.
- ^ Matthew 2:12.
- ^ Matthew 2:16.
- ^ Vermes, Geza, "The First Christmas", History Today. Dec. 2006, 56 (12), pp. 23-9.
- ^ Numbers 24:17.
- ^ Josephus, Flavius, Jewish War, 6.312-313.
- ^ Numbers 24:17. Origen, Contra Celsum, Chapter LIX.
- ^ Daniel 2:48.
- ^ Daniel was considered "one of the greatest prophets" because "he did not only prophecy future events, like the other prophets but specified the time of their accomplishment". (Josephus, Flavius, Antiquities of the Jews 10.11.7). For Daniel's messianic prophecy, see Daniel 9:24-27.
- ^ Origen, Contra Celsum, Chapter LX.
- ^ St John Chrysostom, Homily VI: Matthew Chapter 2, Verse 1 And Matthew Chapter 2, Verse 2
- ^ Isaiah 60:14.
- ^ Isaiah 60:6.
- ^ Matthew 2:2
- ^ Origen, Contra Celsum, Chapter LVIII.
- ^ a b Mosley, John, "Common Errors in 'Star of Bethlehem' Planetarium Shows", Planetarian, Third Quarter 1981.
- ^ Kidger, Mark, "Chinese and Babylonian Observations", Mark Kidger's Home Page. For the contrary view, i.e. that the almanac does show the conjunction was considered significant, see Ashgrove, "Triple Conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn".
- ^ a b Kidger, Mark, "Chinese and Babylonian Observations", Mark Kidger's Home Page.
- ^ a b c d e Jenkins, R.M., "The Star of Bethlehem and the Comet of AD 66", Journal of the British Astronomy Association, June 2004, 114, pp. 336-43.
- ^ Curiosa, Deneb, "The Star of Bethlehem", 2000. See also Kidger, Mark, "What the Star of Bethlehem Was Not".
- ^ Newman, Robert C., "The Star of Bethlehem: A Natural-Supernatural Hybrid?", Interdisciplinary Biblical Research Institute, 2001.
- ^ Molnar, Micheal R., Revealing the Star of Bethlehem.
- ^ Newman, Robert C., "The Star of Bethlehem: A Natural-Supernatural Hybrid?", Interdisciplinary Biblical Research Institute, 2001. A visual presentation is given here.
- ^ Sinnott, Roger, "Thoughts on the Star of Bethlehem," Sky and Telescope, December 1968, pp. 384–386.
- ^ a b c Molnar, Michael R., The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi, Rutgers University Press: 1999. ISBN 0-8135-2701-5.
- ^ Kidger, Mark, "The Star of Bethlehem", Cambridge Conference Correspondence, Dec. 5, 2001.
- ^ Molnar, Michael R., The Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of the Magi, Rutgers University Press: 1999. ISBN 0-8135-2701-5. Stenger, Richard, "Was Christmas star a double eclipse of Jupiter?", Dec. 27, 2001
- ^ Webb, John Charles, Jr, Astro-Archeological Star of Bethlehem (2006).
- ^ Head, Peter M., Christology and the Synoptic Problem: An Argument for Markan priority, Cambridge, 1997, ISBN 0-521-58488-4. For a case against Markan priority, see Peabody, David B., Lamar Cope, and Allan J. McNicol, One Gospel From Two: Mark's Use of Matthew and Luke, Trinity Press International, 2002, ISBN 1-56338-352-7. The traditional view, presented by Augustine and others, was that Matthew was written first and that Mark was redacted from Matthew.
- ^ The Gospels often described Jesus as "of Nazareth," but never as "of Bethlehem." Several passages suggest that neither Mark nor John were aware of the Bethlehem nativity story or of anything outstanding about the birth of Jesus. See Mark 6:1-4, John 1:46, 7:41-42, and 7:52.
- ^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar, The Acts of Jesus: The Search for the Authentic Deeds of Jesus, HarperSanFrancisco, 1999, ISBN 0-06-062979-7. pp. 499, 521, 533.
- ^ Kennard, J. Spencer, "Was Capernaum the Home of Jesus?" Journal of Biblical Literature, Jun. 1946, 65 (2), pp. 131-141. Mark 2:1 states that the home of Jesus was in Capernaum. The Gospels often refer to Jesus as a Nazarēnos (Nazarene) or a Nazōraios (Nazorean), titles usually translated as "of Nazereth." Kennard argued that these forms were nonstandard in Greek and may have referred to something other than a town. Albright countered by showing how both words could have been derived from vernacular Aramaic. (Albright, W.F., "The names 'Nazareth' and 'Nazoraean'", Journal of Biblical Literature, Dec. 1946, 65 (4), pp. 399-400.) In Matthew 2:23, "Nazorean" is a play on the Hebrew word nazer, literally "branch," figuratively "descendant [of David]." (Miller, Fred P., "Isaiah's Use of the word "Branch" or Nazarene")
- ^ The god Apollo was said to have conceived with Augustus' mother and there was a "public portent" indicating that a king of Rome would soon be born. (Suetonius, C. Tranquillus, The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, "The Divine Augustus", Chapter 94.)
- ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, II vi 28
- ^ Matthew 2:12
- ^ Luke 3:1-3, 3:23.
- ^ Maranatha Church, Inc, "Birth of Christ Recalculated", 1998.
- ^ Pratt, John, "Yet Another Eclipse for Herod", Planetarian, Dec. 1990, 19 (4), pp. 8-14.
- ^ Pratt, John, "Yet Another Eclipse for Herod", Planetarian, Dec. 1990, 19 (4), pp. 8-14. Pratt suggested that a regent was appointed in 4 BC and that Herod's successors dated their reigns from this event.
[edit] External links
- Jenkins, R.M., "The Star of Bethlehem and the Comet of 66AD", Journal of the British Astronomy Association, June 2004, 114, pp. 336-43. This article argues that the Star of Bethlehem is a historical fiction influenced by the appearance of Halley Comet in AD 66.
- Martin, Dr. Ernest L., The Star of Bethlehem: The Star that Astonished the World, (1996). Martin favors the theory that the star was a conjunction of Venus and Jupiter in 3 BC (elaborating on Roger Sinnott's 1968 thesis) and that Jesus was born in the early evening of September 11.[1] More than 600 planetariums have revised their Christmas star show to match this work.[2]
- Molnar, Michael R., Revealing the Star of Bethlehem. Proposes that the "star" was an occultation of Jupiter by the moon in 6 BC.
- Newman, Robert C., "The Star of Bethlehem: A Natural-Supernatural Hybrid?", Interdisciplinary Biblical Research Institute, 2001. A variation on the Sinnott thesis. Includes a table of conjunctions and star charts.
- Griffith Observatory, a video on the star presented on MSNBC's Mysteries of the Universe.
- Matthew 2 Biblical text on the magi and the star.
- Star of Bethlehem Bibliography. Provides an extensive bibliography with Web links to online sources.
- The Bethlehem Star. Gives possible scientific explanations of the Star of Bethlehem.
- Video: Star of Bethlehem by Professor Konradin Ferrari d'Occhieppo
- Michele Crudele, Bethlehem, Star of, Interdisciplinary Encyclopedia of Religion and Science, 2002
- Open Bethlehem
