Bachelor's degree
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A bachelor's degree (Artium Baccalaureus, A.B. or B.A.) is usually an undergraduate academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three, four, or in some cases and countries, five or six years. It may also be the name of a postgraduate degree, such as a Bachelor of Civil Law (granted by the University of Oxford.)
[edit] Honours degrees and academic distinctions
Under the English system, and those influenced by it such as the Canadian, Irish, Indian, Maltese, Singaporean, and Hong Kong systems, undergraduate degrees are differentiated either as pass degrees or as honours degrees, the latter denoted by the appearance of "(Hons)" after the degree abbreviation. An honours degree generally requires a higher academic standard than a pass degree, and in Malta, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa, and most Canadian provinces an extra year of study. In Scotland, there also exist General Degrees.
[edit] Australia
In Australia, there are two types of undergraduate degree: pass degrees and Honours degrees. Pass-level degrees require the successful completion of all subjects within the course's structure or program. The subjects must be completed at a 'Pass' level to qualify for graduation and admission to the degree.
In some disciplines, Honours degrees are awarded solely based on a high-level of academic achievement. In most disciplines, particularly science-related or within shorter 3-year courses, Honours degrees require an additional year of study where degree candidates must complete an original research project and submit a thesis, in addition to achieving a high-level of academic performance. Professional degrees such as Law, Engineering, Education, that often have a longer duration require the completion of a shorter research 'project'. Honours is awarded on the basis of the project and continued academic performance across the entire degree, as measured through a weighted-average. Honours degrees are denoted with "(Hons)" following the degree abbreviation, e.g. BSc(Hons).
Undergraduate degrees may be awarded in five classes, with different terminology used by different universities:
- Honours Class I / First Class Honours – the highest level of academic achievement, with some universities awarding a University Medal to the highest-achieving graduates within this class
- Honours Class II Division 1 / Second Class Honours Division A
- Honours Class II Division 2 / Second Class Honours Division B
- Honours Class III / Third Class Honours
- Pass – awarded to all graduates other than those who have completed an Honours degree program
[edit] England, Wales and Northern Ireland
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland there are two different types of degree: Honours degrees and Ordinary degrees. The degrees awarded carry a designation related to the broad subject area such as B.A., B.Sc, B.Eng etc. Most degrees are now honours degrees, with an option not to take honours, and the standard length of a Honours bachelor's degree is 3 years. Prior to the mid 20th century all candidates would take an Ordinary degree and then be selected to go on for a final year for the Honours degree. Now this may be reduced to two either by direct second year entry (for people who have done foundation degrees or changed subject or similar) or by doing compressed courses (which are currently being piloted by a small number of newer universities[1]). Industrial years or language study abroad can extend the course to four years. For funding reasons (funding for undergraduate programs is automatic, funding for postgraduate programs is not) it is becoming increasingly common to skip the bachelor's stage entirely and go straight to masters level on a four year (five year if with industrial experience) course (which often shares the first three years with the equivalent bachelor's course).
Honours degrees are of a superior academic standard. However the practice of writing 'Hons' as part of the degree designation is unofficial and is considered by many as an affectation. An Honours degree is always awarded in one of four classes depending upon the marks gained in the final assessments and examinations. The top students are awarded a first class degree, the next best, an upper second class degree (usually referred to as a 2:1), the next a lower second class degree (usually referred to as a 2:2), and those with the lowest marks gain a third class degree. An Ordinary or unclassified degree (which does not give the graduate the right to add '(Hons)') may be awarded if a student has completed the full honours degree course but hasn't obtained the total required passes sufficient to merit a third-class honours degree. An ordinary degree usually requires 300 CATS points whereas an honours degree requires 360 CATS points. It is possible to be awarded an ordinary degree with distinction if the average of the 300 CATS points is 70%+.
The Graduateship (post-nominal GCGI) awarded by the City & Guilds of London Institute is mapped to a British Honours degree [2]
The Associateship (post-nominal ACGI) is conferred by the Council of the City & Guilds of London Institute on the recommendation of the Dean of the City and Guilds College in recognition of the ability to demonstrate, to the level equivalent to that of a degree of Bachelor of Science (Engineering), or Bachelor of Engineering, or Master of Engineering, the understanding and application of the principles of a branch of Engineering or of Computing Science approved by the Institute. http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/ugprospectus/studyzone/degreesanddiplomas
For a detailed explanation of the classification system see British undergraduate degree classification.
Ordinary degrees are unclassified degrees awarded to all students who have completed the course and obtained sufficient marks to pass the final assessments and examinations. Ordinary degree courses usually have lower entry requirements than Honours degree courses. Although Ordinary degree courses are often considered to be easier than Honours degree courses, this is not always the case, and much depends on the university attended and the subject being studied. Some progressive and inclusive modern universities offer the opportunity for Ordinary degree students to transfer to an Honours degree course in the same subject if an acceptable standard is reached after the first or second year of study.
[edit] Scotland
At the four Scottish Ancients (St Andrews, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen) and Dundee, undergraduate degrees are differentiated as either General Degrees or Honours Degrees.
An Honours degree (usually MA(Hons) for arts/social sciences or BSc(Hons) for sciences) is awarded for students who have completed four years at university - two years at sub-honours level, studying a variety of different subjects, and two years at honours level studying one subject in depth, usually including a dissertation in the final year.
A General Degree (usually MA or BSc) is awarded to students who have completed three years at university studying a variety of subjects. The first two years of a General and Honours degree are identical, but candidates for the General study in less depth in their final year, and over a wider variety of subjects. Candidates for the General do not usually complete a dissertation. A Scottish General degree is different from an English Pass degree even though both may be denoted BSc.
[edit] United States
Almost all U.S. universities and colleges award bachelor's degrees with honors -- usually "cum laude" (with praise), "magna cum laude" (with great praise) and "summa cum laude" (with highest praise) -- degrees without honors are awarded "rite." Requirements for such notations of honors generally include minimum Grade Point Averages, with the highest average required for the "summa" distinction. In the case of a few schools, a senior thesis for degrees in the humanities, and laboratory research for "pure" science degrees is also required. A notable exception is the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which does not have a dean's list, cum laude recognition, or undergraduate honors subjects. Some schools require students to pass comprehensive exams in order to receive a bachelor's degree.
In the U.S., bachelors' degrees typically require four years of full-time study, although some universities and colleges allow ambitious students to complete them in less time. Some U.S. colleges and universities have a separate academic track known as an "honors" or "scholars" program, generally meant for the top students of the school and offering more challenging courses or more individually-directed seminars or research projects. The students are awarded the same bachelor's degree as students in the regular course, but with the notation "in cursu honorum." Usually, the above "laude" honors are separate from the notation for this honors course, but a student in the honors course generally must maintain grades at least worthy of the "cum laude" notation anyway. Hence, a student from such a school might receive a diploma Artium Baccalaureatum rite or Artium Baccalaureatum summa cum laude in the regular course, or Artium Baccalaureatum summa cum laude in cursu honorum, for instance.
As of 2003, one in four U.S. adults (27 percent) had attained at least a bachelor’s degree, an all time high.[1]
[edit] English-speaking world
[edit] BA, AB, BS, BSc, SB, ScB
Today, the most common undergraduate degrees given are the Bachelor of Arts (Artium Baccalaureus) (BA, AB) and the Bachelor of Science (Scientiæ Baccalaureus) (BS, BSc, SB, ScB). Originally, in the universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Trinity College Dublin all undergraduate degrees were in the Faculty of Arts, hence the degree of Bachelor of Arts. Since the late 19th century, most universities in the English-speaking world have followed the practice of the University of London in dividing undergraduate degree subjects into the two broad categories of arts and sciences, awarding the degree of Bachelor of Science to students of the latter category of subjects.
In the United States, many colleges (particularly what are known as "liberal arts colleges") and universities award the BA for all "academic" subjects (whether English or Chemistry) — often these colleges and colleges within universities only offer academic (rather than pre-professional) courses. Schools that have professional training ("Police Science", "Finance", "Nursing", and so on) often reserve the BS degree for these subjects. Some schools award the BA for humanities academic courses and the BS for courses in the physical sciences; in some cases a student may choose between a BA course of study and a BS course of study in the same subject at the same college.
[edit] BMedSc
The title BMedSc is granted to students who have qualified in the field of Biomedical Science. One such university to offer this course is the University of Birmingham.
[edit] BArch
The Bachelor of Architecture is awarded to students who complete the five year course of study in the field.
[edit] B.L.Arch
The Bachelor of Landscape Architecture is awarded to students who complete the four year course of study in the field.
[edit] BAvn
The Bachelor of Aviation is awarded to students who complete a four year course of study in the field.
[edit] BDes
The Bachelor of Design is awarded to those who complete the four years course of study in the Design, usually majoring in a specific field of Design.
[edit] BLA, ABL, BGS or BSGS
The Bachelor of Liberal Arts, Bachelor of General Studies or Bachelor of Science in General Studies is sometimes awarded to students who major in the liberal arts, interdisciplinary studies, or who design their own concentrations.
[edit] BAI, BEng, BE, BESc, BASc
The Bachelor of Engineering (Baccalaureus in Arte Ingeniaria) degree or the Bachelor of Applied Science[3] degree is a professional degree awarded to students who have completed the four year course of study in engineering. There are more specific variants for many subfields, such as the BSEE degree (Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering). The BAI is awarded by the University of Dublin (Trinity College Dublin)
[edit] BBA, BSBA, BBus, BComm, BAcy
The Bachelor of Business Administration degree is awarded to students who complete the four year course of study in certain area of business functions (accounting, finance, operations management, and so on). Some institutions award this degree as a Bachelor of Science in Business Administration (BSBA). New degrees with similar intent include the Bachelor of Business (BBus), Bachelor of Science in Business/e-Business (BSB/eB), Bachelor of Commerce (BComm), and Bachelor of Accountancy (BAcy).
[edit] BFA
The Bachelor of Fine Arts is a specialized degree awarded for courses of study in fine arts, frequently by an "arts school" or conservatory, although it is equally available at a significant number of traditional colleges and universities.
[edit] BI
The Bachelor of Innovation™ (BI) is a family of degrees focused on the multi-disciplinary aspects of the innovation process. There are BI majors in Business Administration, Electrical Engineering, Computer Science, Computer Security as well as Game Design and Development. In addition to the major component, similar to the BS in the associated field, the BI has a common core in innovation, a cross-disciplinary core and a strong experiential component. The degree is offered only by University of Colorado at Colorado Springs.
[edit] BJ
The Bachelor of Journalism degree is a professional degree awarded to students who have studied journalism at a four-year accredited university. Not all universities, however, grant this degree. In the United States, schools tend to offer the BA with a major in Journalism instead.
[edit] B.Kin., B.P.E., B.H.K., B.H.P.E., B.Sc.Kin
The Bachelor of Kinesiology degree is an undergraduate degree in the field of human movement and kinetics. Some schools still offer it under the aegis of a School of Physical Education (B.P.E. or B.H.P.E.), although "Kinesiology" or "Human Kinetics" is currently the more popular accepted term for the discipline.
[edit] BM or B.Mus.
The Bachelor of Music degree is an undergraduate degree in music at most conservatories in the U.S.
[edit] LL.B.
The Bachelor of Laws is the principal academic degree in law in most common law countries other than the United States, where it has been replaced by the Juris Doctor degree.
[edit] BPhil
The Bachelor of Philosophy degree is either an undergraduate or graduate degree; generally, it entails independent research, or a thesis/capstone project.
[edit] BS in Ed
The Bachelor of Science in Education is a four-year undergraduate degree offered by many U.S. colleges and universities for those preparing to be licensed as teachers. Variants include the B.Ed, B.A.Ed, B.A.T. (Bachelor of Arts for Teaching), and B.S.T. Preparatory to the MS in Ed, this degree is most often taken by those interested in early childhood, elementary level, and special education, or by those planning to be school administrators. Secondary level teachers -- for high school students -- often major in their subject area, as History or Chemistry or Mathematics, instead, with a minor in education.
[edit] BSN or BN
The Bachelor of Science in Nursing or Bachelor of Nursing degree is an undergraduate degree in nursing.
[edit] MInf
The Master of Informatics is a four-year undergraduate degree programme. It is traditionally a multidisciplinary degree programme with Computing as its main focus.
[edit] Other
There are many other specialized Bachelor's degrees offered. Some are in very specialized areas, like the five-year BID or BSID degree in industrial design. Others are offered only at a limited number of universities, such as Stanford University's BAS (Bachelor of Arts and Sciences) degree for students completing two Arts and Sciences majors, one of which would ordinarily lead to the BA while the other would ordinarily lead to the BS, but who are receiving only one degree. At many schools one can only complete a two-degree program if the bachelors degrees to be earned are of different types; e.g., one could earn a BA in philosophy and a B.S.Ch.E. in chemical engineering simultaneously, but a person studying philosophy and English would receive only a single BA with the two majors. Rules on this vary considerably, however. The Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University has awarded Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service (BSFS) since its inception in 1919.
[edit] Asia Pacific
The education systems in Asian countries are largely patterned after the western models.
[edit] India
In India, arts and science colleges provide three year bachelor's degrees (BA, BSc, BBA, BComm, etc.).
Engineering and medical colleges provide 4- to 5-year degree programs for bachelor's degree (BE, BArch, BTech, MBBS).
[edit] Pakistan
In Pakistan, Universities and Colleges award three and four years degree in Science (B.S, B.Sc, BCS, BBA,BBIT ,B.COM etc.)and two to fours years degree in Arts (B.A, B.Com, etc.). Engineering Universities provided 4 years degree program for bachelor’s. Medical colleges have 5 year degree programme. In law education there is 3 years LLB degree after 2 years of BA, so total 5 years study.
[edit] Philippines
In the Philippines, where the term "course" is used to refer to a bachelor's degree, several undergraduate categories exist - the two most common degrees awarded being Bachelor of Science (BS) and Bachelor of Arts (AB or BA). Specializations ("majors") in economics, business administration, nursing, architecture, and engineering fall under Science in most colleges and universities. The latter two specializations normally require five years of schooling, in contrast to the standard of four years. Other common degrees are Bachelor in Education (BEd), and Bachelor of Laws (LLB, a graduate degree).
[edit] Japan
Institutes of higher learning in Japan provide four years of college education leading to a bachelor's degree which is referred to as "gakushi", e.g., Gakushi in Economics. Some institutes offer six-year programs leading to a professional degree.
[edit] Malaysia
Institutes of higher learning in Malaysia provides a three & four years of education leading to a B.Sc Hons Degree. There are also twinning programme with Australian and UK universities.
[edit] Europe
Bachelor's degrees exist in almost every country in Europe. However, these degrees were only recently introduced in some Continental European countries, where Bachelor's degrees were unknown before the Bologna process.
[edit] Germany
Bachelor's degrees, called Bakkalaureus, originally existed in Germany, but were abolished up until 1820 as part of educational reforms at this time. The Magister degree, originally a graduate degree, became the new first degree after five years of study. In 1899 a second first degree, the Diplom, was introduced when the Technische Hochschulen received university status. However, in 1998 a new educational legislation reintroduced the Bachelor's degree (first degree after 3 to 4 years of study) in Germany. Today these degrees can be called either Bakkalaureus or Bachelor (in accordance with federal law) but the English term is more common. The traditional degrees will be abolished by 2010.
[edit] Austria
The historical situation in Austria is very similar to the situation in Germany. The traditional first degrees are also the Magister and the Diplom. A new educational legislation in 2002 reintroduced the Bachelors degree also in Austria, but these degrees are generally called Bakkalaureus.
[edit] Switzerland
Similarly to Austria and Germany, there is no tradition of Bachelor degrees in Switzerland. The traditional first degrees were the Licentiate and the Diplom. Bachelor's and graduate Master's degrees replacing the old degrees since 2004.
[edit] Netherlands
In 2004, the Dutch degree system was changed to abide to international standards. Former degrees such as the baccalaureus (bc. for Bachelor), doctorandus (prefix abbreviated to drs., corresponds to MA or MSc), ingenieur (ing. for Bachelor and ir. for Master level, corresponds to B.Eng and M.Eng respectively), meester in de rechten (mr., corresponds to LL.M.) and doctor (dr., corresponds to Ph.D) are no longer granted (although still used and protected)
Bachelor's degrees are granted by both accredited colleges and universities. For colleges after four years of education a bachelor's degree is obtained (BA, BSc, B.Eng, LL.B.). For universities after three years of education a degree is granted (BA, B.Eng, BSc, LL.B.) Whether a bachelor's degree is granted by a college or university makes a lot of difference. BA's from a university grant 'immediate' entry into a master's programme (and are usually considered a formality to allow students entering foreign universities master's programmes), BA's from a college require an extra 'bridge year' (often called a 'pre-master' year) to be allowed into a master's programme, since university BSc graduates are already tutored in research fields, whereas college BSc graduates are not. Granted degrees may be used as suffixes (Dhr. Jansen BSc). Note: the English prefix 'Mr.' corresponds in Dutch with the official, and protected prefix 'mr.', meaning a 'meester in de rechten', i.e. a Master of Law, or the English equivalent LL.M.
[edit] Italy
Since the Bologna Process the old Italian five years laurea system is no longer in use. The BA level corresponds today to the "laurea triennale", which has a normative time to completion of three years (notice that in Italy students graduate from high school at the age of 19) and grants the access to postgraduate degrees (Laurea Magistrale). In order to graduate, students must complete 180 credits and write a thesis. Graduation marks go from 66 to 110 but it is unlikely for a candidate to receive less than 80. According to each faculty internal ruling a lode (distinction) may be assigned to candidates with a 110/110 mark for recognition of the excellence of the thesis or a really high average. BA and MA graduates in Italy are addressed as Dottore (for a man) or Dottoressa (for a woman).
[edit] Commonwealth of Independent States
The specialist degree (специалист) was the only first degree in the Soviet Union. In the early 1990s, bakalavr (Bachelor's) degrees were introduced in all the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States, except Turkmenistan. However, the specialist degree continues to be the most frequently awarded degree in Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Ukraine, and bakalavr degrees are still relatively rare.
Since late 90's many universities in the former USSR award 'diplom bakalavra' (bachelor's diploma) after the first four years of 'basic higher education', 'diplom spetsialista' (specialist diploma) after the first five years of 'full higher education', and 'diplom magistra' (master's diploma) after six years.
[edit] Bachelors of Medicine and Surgery
In countries following British tradition, (the University of Malta is an exception) medical graduates receive a Bachelors of Medicine and Surgery (MB BChir or BM BCh or MB ChB or MBBS). This was historically taken after the initial BA degree, and in Oxford and Cambridge the BA is still awarded for the initial three years of medical study, with the BM BCh or MB BChir being awarded for the subsequent clinical stage of training. Although notionally MB and BChir are two degrees, they must be taken together, and by convention entitle the bearer to use the title of Doctor. In some Irish universities a third degree, Bachelor of Obstetrics (BAO), is often added.
[edit] New bachelor's degrees
The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge are perhaps alone today in awarding the B.A. for all undergraduate degrees. Almost all American universities award B.A. and B.S. degrees. However, in many universities over the last hundred years the range of bachelor's degrees has expanded enormously, especially in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, where the B.A. degree is becoming increasingly uncommon.
Some of these new degrees and their abbreviations include:
- A.L.B. — Bachelor of Liberal Arts
- B.A.A. — Bachelor of Applied Arts
- B.A.A.S — Bachelor of Applied Arts and Sciences
- B.A.E. — Bachelor of Arts and Economics
- B.A.S. — Bachelor of Architectural Studies
- B.A.Sc. — Bachelor of Applied Science
- B.Acy. — Bachelor of Accountancy
- B.AgrSc — Bachelor of Agricultural Science
- B.App.Sc. — Bachelor of Applied Science
- B.As. — Bachelor of Asian Studies
- B.A.Econ. — Bachelor of Economics
- B.Arch. — Bachelor of Architecture
- B.B.A. — Bachelor of Business Administration
- B.B.E. — Bachelor of Build Environment
- B.B.NSc. — Bachelor of Behavioural Neuroscience
- B.Bus — Bachelor of Business
- B.C.A. — Bachelor of Commerce and Administration
- B.Ch. — Bachelor of Surgery (also the name of a postgraduate degree in some universities)
- B.Comm. or B.Com. — Bachelor of Commerce
- B.Comn. — Bachelor of Communication
- B.Comp. — Bachelor of Computing
- B.C.S. or B.CompSc. — Bachelor of Computer Science
- B.C.M.— Bachelor of Computer and Mathematical Sciences
- B.D. — Bachelor of Divinity (also the name of a postgraduate degree in some universities)
- B.Des. — Bachelor of Design (Visual design discipline)
- B.Econ.&Fin. — Bachelor of Economics and Finance
- B.Ed. — Bachelor of Education
- B.E.S. — Bachelor of Environmental Studies
- B.En.D. — Bachelor of Environmental Design
- B.Eng. or B.E. — Bachelor of Engineering
- B.F.A. — Bachelor of Fine Arts
- B.Fin. — Bachelor of Finance
- B.G.S. — Bachelor of General Studies
- B.H.A. — Bachelor of Humanities and Arts
- B.H.Sc — Bachelor of Health Sciences
- B.InfTech. — Bachelor of Information Technology
- B.InfSci. — Bachelor of Information Science
- B.IntSt. — Bachelor of International Studies
- B.J. — Bachelor of Journalism (see the University of Missouri-Columbia)
- B.Lang. — Bachelor of Languages
- B.L.S. — Bachelor of Liberal Studies
- B.M. or M.B. — Bachelor of Medicine (also the name of a postgraduate degree in some universities)
- BMASc. — Bachelor of Military Arts and Sciences (used at Royal Military College of Canada)
- BMgmt. — Bachelor of Management
- BMS. — Bachelor of Maritime Studies
- BMSc. — Bachelor of Medical Science
- B.Math. — Bachelor of Mathematics (also the name of a postgraduate degree in some universities)
- B.M.E. — Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering
- B.Mus. or Mus.B. — Bachelor of Music (also the name of a postgraduate degree in some universities)
- B.M.M.S — Bachelor of Multimedia Studies
- B.Ost — Bachelor of Osteopathy
- B.Optom — Bachelor of Optometry
- B.P.A.P.M. (Hons); Bachelor of Public Affairs and Policy Management (used at Carleton University)
- B.P.Ed. or B.P.E. — Bachelor of Physical Education
- B.Pharm. — Bachelor of Pharmacy
- B.Physio. — Bachelor of Physiotherapy (University of Newcastle, Australia)
- B.Psych — Bachelor of Psychology (Commonwealth Usage, Particularly Australia)
- B.P.S. — Bachelor of Professional Studies (University of Mary Washington, Virginia)
- B.R.E. — Bachelor of Religious Education
- B.S. — Bachelor of Surgery (Commonwealth usage, usually as part of a MB BS)
- B.S.BME — Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering
- B.S.E. — Bachelor of Science in Engineering
- B.SE. — Bachelor of Software Engineering (used at McGill University, Bahria University and the University of Waterloo)
- B.Soc.Sc. — Bachelor of Social Sciences (used at the University of Ottawa)
- B.S.B. — Bachelor of Science in Business
- B.S.E.E. — Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering
- B.S.F. — Bachelor of Science in Forestry
- B.S.F.E. — Bachelor of Science in Forest Engineering (University of New Brunswick)
- B.S.F.S. — Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service (used by the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University)
- B.S.M. — Bachelor of Science in Management (used at The University of Akron,and perhaps others)
- B.S.S.E. — Bachelor of Science in Science Education
- B.S.W. — Bachelor of Social Work
- B.Tech. — Bachelor of Technology
- B.Theol — Bachelor of Theology
- B.Tour. — Bachelor of Tourism
- BVisCom — Bachelor of Visual Communication
A full list of British degree abbreviations is also available.
[edit] References
- ^ [U.S. Census Bureau Educational Attainment in the United States: 2003 (P20-550)]. http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/p20-550.pdf. Retrieved on 2006-09-01. [PDF]
[edit] See also
- Academic degree
- Associate's degree
- Bologna process - European harmonisation.
- Degrees of the University of Oxford
- Doctorate
- Double degree
- Engineer's degree
- Master's degree
- Validation
