Utente:Bukkia/sandbox XI
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La lingua ceca si è sviluppata intorno al I millennio DC dalla lingua proto-slava.
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[modifica] Periodi
[modifica] Proto-Ceco
Viene chiamato 'Proto-ceco il più antico stadio di sviluppo della lingua ceca come una lingua separata (dalla fine del X secolo ad approssimativamente la metà del XII secolo). I linguisti riconoscono la ricostruzione solo per il fatto che non esistono documenti scritti del periodo. Il latino, e limitatamente l'antico slavo ecclesiastico, venivano usati come lingue letterarie.
I più antichi cambiamenti dal proto-slavo erano gli stessi per tutti i dialetti slavi occidentali. Soprattutto la palatalizzazione della consonante velare ch → š (vьšь, tutto), mentre → s (vьsь) si è sviluppata nei dialetti slavi orientali e meridionali. Altri cambiamenti ebbero luogo durante il X secolo:
- la contrazione del gruppo vocale + j + vocale (dobriji → dobr’í, dobroje → dobré, buono);
- la caduta degli jer secondo la Legge di Havlík (bъzъ → bez, bъza → bza (gen.), in seguito bezu, sambuco);
- la denasalizzazione delle nasali ę [ẽ] → ä ed ǫ [õ] → u.
La caduta degli jer avvenne secondo la regola che gli jer presenti in posizione dispari dalla fine caddero, mentre gli jer (sia ъ che ь, a differenza di altre lingue slave) in posizione pari divennero e.
La caduta degli jer rafforzò il contrasto fonologico tra le consonanti palatalizzate e non, e provocò l'alternanza della "e" epentetica ed 0 (fonema zero). Venne rafforzato anche il contrasto della quantità vocalica. La depalatalizzazione delle consonanti che precedevano e ed ä ebbe luogo in seguito, quindi la frequenza delle consonanti palatalizzate venne diminuita, ma allo stesso tempo ciò rafforzò il contrasto di palatalizzazione. Il cambiamento di ’ä → ě ed ä → a ebbe luogo alla fine del XII secolo.
Le vocali erano anteriori (ä, e, i, ě) e posteriori (a, o, u), e le anteriori avevano varianti allofone posteriori e viceversa. Le consonanti si divisero in dure (b, p, v, m, t, d, r, l, n, c, z, s, k, g, ch) e molli, palatali o palatalizzate (t’, d’, r’, l’, n’, c’, s’, z’, č, š, ž, j, ň). Questa divisione divenne basilare per lo sviluppo successivo.
Nella declinazione nominale, la divisione tradizionale secondo la radice della parola venne progressivamente rimpiazzata dal principio del genere (maschile, feminnile e neutro). C'erano inoltre tre numeri: singolare, duale e plurale.
Il duale veniva applicato anche nella coniugazione verbale. Il passato veniva espresso dall'aoristo, l'imperfetto, il perfetto ed il piuccheperfetto. Il futuro non era ancora un tempo stabilizzato, il presente veniva infatti spesso usato al suo posto. Il contrasto tra l'aspetto perfettivo ed imperfettivo non era ancora abbastanza sviluppato, esistevano verbi biaspettuali e verbi senza aspetto. Il supino proto-slavo veniva usato dopo i verbi di moto, ma venne rimpiazzato dall'infinito, pur lasciando una traccia: l'attuale desinenza di infinito in -t, che deriva dal supino.
[modifica] Ceco arcaico
Questo periodo si estende dalla metà del XII secolo alla fine del XIII secolo. I primi documenti scritti, bohemica (nomi cechi in testi in lingua straniera), glosse (traduzioni ceche di parole e frasi scritte in aggiunta a testi stranieri) e note (non relative ai testi originali), vengono da questo periodo.
La più antica frase ceca venne annotata nella carta di fondazione del capitolo di Litoměřice all'inizio del XIII secolo:
Pauel dal geʃt ploʃcoucih zemu
Wlah dalgeʃt dolaʃ zemu iʃuiatemu ʃcepanu ʃeduema duʃnicoma bogucea aʃedlatu
(trascritto in alfabeto ceco moderno: Pavel dal jest Ploškovcích zem’u. Vlach dal jest Dolás zem’u i sv’atému Ščepánu se dvěma dušníkoma Bogučeja a Sedlatu.)
I testi venivano scritti in un'ortografia primitiva che utilizzava le lettere dell'alfabeto latino senza modifiche anche per i suoni che non appartenevano al latino. La lettera c, ad esempio, denotava k, c così come č. Ciò portà a varie ambiguità che divennero serie specialmente nei nomi. In seguito durante il XIII secolo, l' ortografia digrafa cominciò a comparire, anche se non sistematicamente. Combinazioni di lettere (digrafi) venivano usato per esprimere suoni cechi, es. rs per ř.
Si ebbero grandi cambiamenti nella fonetica. Le varianti anteriori e posteriori delle vocali vennero eliminate, es. ’ä → ě (ie) ed ’a → ě (v’a̋ce → viece, più, p’äkný → pěkný, carino). In morfologia, questi campiamenti ampliarono la differenza tra i nomi deboli ed i nomi forti (sedláka, contadino (gen.) / oráčě, aratore (gen.); města, città / mor’ě, mari; žena, donna x dušě, anima) così come nei verbi (volati, chiamare / sázěti; piantare). La l dura sillabica cambiò in lu (Chlmec → Chlumec, dĺgý → dlúhý, lungo), al contrario della l’ dolce. Il passaggio di g a ɣ, e quindi in seguito a h, ha avuto luogo in tutto il periodo fino al XII secolo. In seguito le alveolari palatali divennero sibilanti (t’ → c’, d’ → dz’ e r’ → rs’). Ad ogni modo, c’ e dz’ scomparvero poco dopo, ma il passaggio r’ → rs’ → ř divenne permanente.
La morfologia differisce di poco dal Proto-ceco.
[modifica] XIV secolo
Nel XIV secolo, il ceco cominciò a penetrare nei vari stili letterari. Verso la fine del secolo cominciarono ad apparire documenti ufficiali in ceco. L'ortografia digrafa veniva normalmente applicata.
La vecchia ortografia digrafa era:
| Vecchia ortografia | Ortografia moderna |
|---|---|
| ch | ch |
| chz | č |
| cz | c |
| g | j |
| rs, rʃ, rz | ř |
| s, ʃ | ž |
| ʃʃ | š |
| w | v |
| v | u |
| zz | s |
| z | z |
| ie, ye | ě |
I grafemi i ed y erano intercambiabili. La lunghezza vocalica non veniva segnalata di solito e le lettere doppie venivano usate raramente. Regole obbligatorie non esistevano, perciò il sistema non veniva sempre applicato precisamente.
Dopo il 1340, venne applicata la tarda ortografia digrafa:
| Tarda ortografia | Ortografia moderna |
|---|---|
| ch | ch |
| cz | č o c |
| g | j |
| rs, rʃ, rz | ř |
| s, ʃ | s o š |
| ʃʃ | s o š |
| w | v |
| v | u |
| z | z |
| y finale | j |
| ie, ye | ě |
I grafemi i ed y rimasero intercambiabili. I segni di punteggiatura venivano usati salutariamente in varie forme, per denotare le pause.
The changes of ’u > i (kl’úč > klíč, key) and ’o > ě (koňóm > koniem, (to) horses). The so-called main historical depalatization, initiated in the 13th century, was finished. Palatized (softened) consonants either merged with their hard counterparts or became palatal (ď, ť, ň). The depalatization did not temporarily concern hard and soft l, which merged to one middle l later at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries. In this context, the phoneme ě [ʲe] disappeared. The short ě either changed to e or was dissociated to j + e (pěna [pjena], foam) before labial consonants in the pronunciation. The long ě was diphthongized to ie (chtieti, to want, čieše, goblet, piesek, sand). At the same time, the long ó was diphthongized to uo (sól > suol, salt). In pronunciation, regressive assimilation of voice was enforced (with the exception of h, ř and v). The voicedness became the main contrastive feature of consonants after the disappearance of palatization. The original pronunciation of v was probably bilabial (as preserved in some Eastern-Bohemian dialect in syllable-final possitions: diwnej, peculiar, stowka, a hundred), but in the 14th century, the articulation was adapted to the unvoiced labiodental f. Prothetic v- has been added to all words beginning o- (voko instead of oko, eye) in the Bohemian dialects since this period.
In morphology, the future tense of imperfective verbs was fixed. The type budu volati (I will call) became preferred to other types (chc’u volati, I want to call, jmám volati, I have to call, and budu volal, I will called). The contrastive feature of (im)perfectiveness was also stabilized. The perfectivization function of prefixes and the imperfektivization function of suffixes are applied. As a consequence of this, aorist and imperfect tenses are disappearing little by little and are replaced by the perfect tense (now called preterite, since it became the only past tense in Czech). The periphrastic passive voice is formed.
[modifica] Periodo hussita
The period of the 15th century from the beginning of Jan Hus' preaching activity to the beginning of Czech humanism. The number of literary language users enlarges. Czech fully penetrates the administration.
Around 1406, a reform of the orthography was suggested in De orthographia Bohemica, a work attributed to Jan Hus – the so-called diacritic orthography. For recording of soft consonants, digraphs are replaced by a dot above letters. The acute is used to denote the vowel length. The digraph ch and the grapheme w are preserved. The interchangeability of the graphemes i and y is cancelled. The suggestion is a work of an individual person, therefore this graphic systeme was accepted slowly, the digraph orthography was applied simultaneously. According to the development of the art of speaking, the punctuation mark is used still.
As a consequence of the loss of palatization, the pronunciation of y and i merged. This change resulted in the diphthongization of ý > ej in Common Czech (the widespread Bohemian interdialect). There are also some other changes in this period: the diphthongization of ú > ou (written au, the pronunciation was probably different than today), the monophthongization of ie > í (miera > míra, measure) and uo > ú. The diphthong uo was sometimes recorded as o in the form of a ring above the letter u, which resulted in the grapheme ů (kuoň > kůň). The ring has been regarded as a diacritic mark denoting the length since the change in pronunciation.
The contrast of animateness in masculine inflection is not still fully set, as it is not applied to animals (vidím pána, I see a lord x vidím pes, I see a dog). Aorist and imperfect disappeared from literary styles before the end of the century.
[modifica] Periodo umanistico
The period of the mature literary language from the 16th to the beginning of the 17th century. The orthography in written texts is not still unified, digraphs are used predominantly in various forms. After the invention of book-printing, the so-called Brethren orthography stabilized in printed documents. The Bible of Kralice (1579 – 1593), the first complete Czech translation of the Bible from the original languages by the Unity of the Brethren, became the pattern of the literal Czech language. The orthography was predominantly diacritic, the dot in soft consonants was replaced by the caron which was used in č, ď, ň, ř, ť, ž. The letter š was mostly written in the final positions in words only, the digraph ʃʃ was written in the middle. The grapheme ě became used in the contemporary way. The vowel length was denoted by the acute accent, except for ů developed from original ó. The long í was doubled ii for the technical reasons, later it was denoted as ij, and finally as j. pronounced [j] was recorded as g or y, pronounced [g] was sometimes recorded by the grapheme ǧ. The double w was preserved, the simple v denoted the word-initial u. The diphthong ou was denoted as au. The hard y was always written after c, s, z (cyzý, strange). The complicated syntax, influenced by Latin texts, required some improvement of the punctuation. However, the comma was used according to pauses in pronuciation, not the syntax. The full stop, the colon, the question mark and the exclamation mark are used. The first grammars are published for typographers' purposes.
In the pronunciation, the change of ý > ej was established, but it occurred in lesser prestige style text only. The diphthongization of ú > ou was also stabilized (but au still remained in graphics). In initial positions, it was used in lesser prestige or specialized styles only. Written mě [mje] starts to be pronounced as [mňe]. The change of tautosyllabic aj > ej (daj > dej, give (imperative), vajce > vejce, egg) took place, but it was not applied in heterosyllabic aj (dají, they will give, vajec, egg – gen. pl.).
In morphology, the differentiation of animate and inanimate masculines was completed (vidím psa).
[modifica] Periodo barocco
The period from the second half of the 17th century to the second third of the 18th century was marked by confiscations and emigration of the Czech intelligentsia after the Battle of White Mountain. The function of the literary language was limited; it left the scientific field first, the discerning literature later, and the administration finally. Prestigious literary styles were cultivated by Czech expatriates abroad. The zenith and, simultaneously, the end of the florescence of prestigious literary styles are represented by the works of Jan Amos Komenský. The changes in the phonology and the morphology of the literary language ended in the previous period. Only the spoken language continued its development in the country. As a consequence of strong isolation, the differences between dialects were deepened. Especially, the Moravian and Silesian dialects developed divergently from Common Czech.
Printed documents used the same orthography as in the previous period. Only the two kinds of l are not differentiated any more. The semicolon occurs as a punctuation mark for better and clear organization of excessive and complicated complex sentences. Digraphs with irregular elements of diacritics are still used in hand-written texts.
The first ideas of the Nnational Revival were in so-called defences of the Czech language. The most likely first such work is Dissertatio apologenetica pro lingua Slavonica, praecipue Bohemica ("The defence of the Slavic language, of Czech in particular"), written in Latin by Bohuslav Balbín.
[modifica] Rinascimento nazionale
The period from the 1780’s to the 1840’s. The abolition of serfdom in 1781 caused migration of country inhabitants to towns. It enabled the implementation of the ideas of the Czech national awakeners for the renewal of the Czech language. However, the people’s language and literary genres of the previous period were strange to the enlightened intelligentsia. The literary language of the end of the 16th century and of Komenský’s work became the starting point for the new codification of literary Czech. Of the various attempts at codification, Josef Dobrovský’s grammar was ultimately generally accepted. Purists' attempts to cleanse the language ofgermanisms (both real and fictitious) had been occurring by that time. The publication of Josef Jungmann’s five-part Czech-German Dictionary (1835–1830) contributed to the renewal of Czech vocabulary. Thanks to the enthusiasm of Czech scientists, Czech scientific terminology was created.
Step by step, the orthography was liberated from the relics of the Brethren orthography. According to the etymology, si, zi or sy, zy became to be written, cy was replaced by ci. Antiqua was introduced instead of frctura in printing, and it leaded to removal of the digraph ʃʃ and its replacement by the letter š. The long í replaced j, and j replaced g (gegj > její, her). In 1840’s, the double w was replaced by v and ou replaced the traditional au. Thus, the orthography became close to its contemporary appearance. According to the German model, the punctuation leaves the pause principle and respects the syntax.
The artistic literature often resorted to archaisms and did not respect the natural development of the spoken language. It was due to attempts to reach the prestige literal styles.
[modifica] Ceco moderno
Literary Czech has not been an exclusive matter of the intellectual classes since the 1840’s. Journalism was developing and artistic works got closer to the spoken language, especially in syntax. In 1902, Jan Gebauer published the first Rules of Czech Orthography, which also contained an overview of the mophology. These rules still preferred older forms in doublets. During the 20th century, elements of the spoken language (of Common Czech especially) penetrated literary Czech. The orthography of foreign words were "Czechified" with respect to their pronunciation, especially writing z instead of s and marking the vowel length (e.g. gymnasium > gymnázium, grammar school). Social changes after World War II (1945) led to gradual diminishing of differences between dialects. Since the second half of the 20th century, Common Czech elements have also been spreading to regions previously unaffected, as a consequence of the media's influence.
[modifica] Fonti
- Karlík P., Nekula M., Pleskalová J. (ed.). Encyklopedický slovník češtiny. Nakl. Lidové noviny. Praha 2002. ISBN 80-7106-484-X.
- Rejzek J. Český etymologický slovník. Leda, Voznice 2001. ISBN 80-85927-85-3.
- Lamprecht A., Šlosar D., Bauer J. Historická mluvnice češtiny. SPN Praha 1986, 423 s.
