英國地形測量局
维基百科，自由的百科全书
英國地形測量局，（英語：Ordnance Survey, OS），一個英國政府行政機構，直屬社區及本地行政部；主要專責英國本土公共地圖製作[1]，並是全世界最大地圖製作商之一。
目录 |
[编辑] 起源
英國地形測量局起源自1747年。 當時英皇喬治二世鑑於兩年前雅各賓起義原因，委任一隊軍事測繪團測量蘇格蘭高地。 而首次全國性測量監督，等候至1790至1791年英國軍需處(Board of Ordnance；英國國防部的前身)，為預防法國入侵，由William Roy利用倫敦至巴黎的南北基線(baseline)從英格蘭南岸開始使用經緯儀測量全國[1]。 英國郵政在1991年發行一套以根德郡城鎮Hamstreet為主題的全國測量二百年紀念郵票。
首套一吋對一英浬（1:63,360比例）根德郡地圖在1801年出版； 艾塞克斯稍後發行。 這行累垮全國性1:63,360比例地圖測量，在二十年後只完成英格蘭及威爾士三分之一的面積。 Major Thomas Colby陸軍少校曾在1819年使用二十二天，步行五百八十六英浬；五年後並帶其部下至愛爾蘭進行六吋對一英浬（1:10,560比例）的物業評估測量。
稍後成為英國地形測量局局長的Thomas Colby，不只聚精會神地協助專門測量儀器設計外，並成立一套地點名稱收集系統；及重組地圖繪製方式令產品更清晰和準確。 Thomas Colby本人有團隊精神，並經常親自率隊出外進行測量、紮營、及安排乾果布丁派對慶祝某測量完成。
自首批愛爾蘭地圖在1830年代中發行後，《什一稅通訊法》下令當局繪製英格蘭及威爾士境內類同的六英吋測量。 經過官方支吾後，鐵路的發展的壓力，迫使國會通過《1841年地形測量法》，在測量用途下給予增加產業的權利。 隨著位於倫敦塔總部的1841年火警後，英國地形測量局為了單一比例尺使用而爭吵數年。 當時的局長，Sir Henry James陸軍少將提倡使用攝影技術，廉價及容易地繪製多種比例的地圖。
1841年火警後的英國地形測量局總部，被移至英格蘭南普頓某地點；二十五比一英浬的全國性測量終在1895年大功告成。
[编辑] 二十世紀
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英國地形測量局在第一次世界大戰期間協助盟國繪製法國及比利時地圖；第二次世界大戰期間更多地圖被繪製包括以下：
- 1:40,000比例，比利時安特衛普地圖
- 1:100,000比例，比利時首都布魯塞爾地圖
- 1:5,000,000比例，南非地圖
- 1:250,000比例，意大利地圖
- 1:50,000比例，法國西北部地圖
- 1:30,000比例，偕同德軍佔領軍區手稿一起的荷蘭地圖
第一次世界大戰之後，歷任英國地形測量局局長Charles Close陸軍上校，發展一套利用Ellis Martin設計封面的巿場策略，試圖在康樂市場上增加地圖銷量。 其外，地形測量局總考古學官O. G. S. Crawford在1920年代開始，在使用空中攝影深入研究考古學中扮演一個卓越角色。
1935年，地形測量局內的大衛信委員會被成立檢討該局前途。 新局長Malcolm MacLeod陸軍少將開始英國新三角測量點計劃，在英國各山頭止安裝混凝土三角測量柱的巨大任務。 這類新式混凝土柱供經緯儀提供無誤的固定位置，作至少三十二次多角度量度。
大衛信委員會的最終報告為英國地形測量局在二十世紀調正。 英國方格網系統的成立，使用十進制標準、實驗性1:25,000比例地圖。 方格網系統的成功令新的1:50,000比例地圖取代了剩餘四十年生命的一英吋地圖。
英國地形測量局在南普頓的總部已經超用，加上二次大戰時受轟炸的損毀；需耍搬遷。 所以總部在1969年被遷移至南普頓市外圍新市鎮Maybush至今。 而舊址大樓現今成為當地法院一部份。
1995年英國地形測量局成功完成所有二十三萬份地圖的電子化，令英國成為全世界首個完成地圖電子化的國家。
現今英國地形測量局由一個軍事支援組織，變為一個民政的英國政府[[行政機構]]。
[编辑] 英國地圖系列
英國地形測量局的紙品地圖產品在各大書局有售以下比例：
- 街道 (1:625,000比例) - 設計供長程道路使用者；一張深藍色封面雙頁地圖，覆蓋全大不列顛島。
- 街道/地方 (1:250,000比例) - 設計供任何道路使用者；八張綠色封面，覆蓋全大不列顛島的地圖。
- 地形(Landranger) (1:50,000比例) - 粉紅色封面通用地圖；二百零四張覆蓋全大不列顛島及萌島。
- Explorer (1:25,000比例) - Specifically designed for walkers and cyclists. They have orange covers; 403 sheets cover the whole of Great Britain (the Isle of Man is excluded from this series). Explorer maps have replaced two older series of 1:25,000 map:
- 郊區康樂 - Also for walkers and cyclists. These 33 maps specifically covered tourist destinations. Identified by their yellow covers and often double-sided, they predated the Explorer maps. They covered a larger area than Pathfinders.
- Pathfinder - Pathfinders, with their green covers, were the predecessors to the Explorer series. These maps were smaller than the new ones and generally had no overlap between adjacent sheets. There were over 1,300 maps in the series. Some Pathfinders were phased out by the arrival of Outdoor Leisure maps, the remainder being later replaced by the new Explorer series.
其餘出版地圖包括多樣各比例的歷史及考古地圖，某受歡迎的旅客地圖。 英國地形測量局出版一套全國地圖索引；及向專業和有需要人仕提供更深入和定做的1:10,000比例和1:1,250比例地圖。
[编辑] 地圖學
The original maps were made by triangulation. For the second survey, in 1934, this process was used again, and resulted in the building of many triangulation pillars (trig points): short (approx 4 feet/1.2 m high), usually square, concrete or stone pillars at prominent locations such as hill tops. Their precise locations were determined by triangulation, and the details in between were then filled in with less precise methods. Modern Ordnance Survey maps are based on aerial photographs, but large numbers of the pillars remain.
The OS still maintains a set of master geodetic reference points to tie the OS geographic datums to modern measurement systems including GPS. The Ordnance Survey maps of Great Britain do not use latitude and longitude to indicate position but a special grid. The grid is technically known as OSGB36™ (Ordnance Survey Great Britain 1936), and was introduced after the retriangulation of 1936–53.
[编辑] OS MasterMap
The Ordnance Survey's flagship digital product, launched in November 2001, is OS MasterMap. This is a database that records every fixed feature of Great Britain larger than a few metres in one continuous digital map. Every feature is given a unique TOID (topographical identifier), a simple identifier that includes no semantic information. Typically each TOID is associated with a polygon that represents the area on the ground that the feature covers, in National Grid coordinates. MasterMap is offered in themed "layers", for example, a road layer and a building layer, each linked to a number of TOIDs. Pricing of licenses to MasterMap data depends on the total area requested, the layers licensed, the number of TOIDs in the layers, and the period in years of the data usage.
MasterMap can be used to generate maps for a vast array of purposes, and maps can be printed from MasterMap data with detail equivalent to a traditional 1:1250 paper map.
The OS claims that MasterMap data is never more than 6 months out of date, thanks to continuous review. The scale and detail of this mapping project is unique. Around 440 million TOIDs have so far been assigned, and the database stands at 600 gigabytes in size. MasterMap is currently (August 2005) at version 6.
The OS is encouraging users of its old OS Landline data to migrate to MasterMap.
[编辑] 地理資訊科學的研究
Since about 2001 Ordnance Survey has had a Research & Innovation department that is very active in several areas of Geographical information Science, including:
- Spatial cognition
- Map Generalisation
- Spatial Data Modelling
- Remote sensing and analysis of remotely sensed data
- Semantics and ontologies
Ordnance Survey actively supports the academic research community through its External Research and University Liaison team. The R&I department actively supports MSc and PhD students as well as engaging in colloborative research. Most Ordnance Survey products are available to UK Universities that have signed up to the Digimap agreement and data is also made available for research purposes that advances Ordnance Survey's own research agenda.
More information can be found at Research & Innovation
[编辑] 地形測量局的評論
In recent years there have been a number of criticisms of Ordnance Survey. Most of these centre on the argument that OS possesses a virtual government monopoly on geographic data in the UK.”[2] Although OS is a government agency it is required to act as a "trading fund" or commercial entity. This means that it is totally self funding from the commercial sale of its data whilst at the same time being the public supplier of geographical information.
On the 7 April 2006 the Office of Public Sector Information (OPSI) received a complaint from the data management company Intelligent Addressing[3]. Many, although not all, complaints were upheld by the OPSI, one of the conclusions being that OS "is offering licence terms which unnecessarily restrict competition".
Negotiations between OS and interested parties are ongoing with regard to the issues raised by the OPSI report, the OS being under no obligation to comply with the report's recommendations.
[编辑] 參閱
- 以下為相關機構
- 愛爾蘭地形測量局
- 北愛爾蘭地形測量局
- 比利時國家地理學會
- 法國國家地理學會
- 香港地政總署
- 意大利Istituto Geografico Militare - [2]
- 荷蘭Topografische Dienst Kadaster
- 瑞士聯邦地形署
- 挪威Statens kartverk
- 美國地質調查局
- 地圖學 (繪製地圖)
[编辑] 參考
- Margary, Harry (1992). Old Series Ordnance Survey Maps of England and Wales，Unknown. ISBN 0-903541-01-7.
- Official Homepage - Official Homepage - 於2005September 29zh-tw:造;zh-cn:采訪。
- History of Cartography - Academic research by the University of Exeter - 於2005September 29zh-tw:造;zh-cn:采訪。
[编辑] 外部連結
- Ordnance Survey
- old-maps.co.uk 19th century Ordnance Survey maps of the whole of Great Britain
- 19th century Ordnance Survey maps of Lancashire
- National GPS network information: A guide to coordinate systems in Great Britain
- OS MasterMap official site
- The Guardian: Devil is in the detail as OS maps out the future by Paul Brown, March 8, 2004
- Royal Engineers Museum - Survey -origins of the Ordnance Survey
- Royal Engineers Museum - General Roy -Biography
- [3] History of Ordnance Survey
- Scans of the OS Popular Edition - England and Wales (1920-30s)
- Scans of the OS New Popular Edition - England and Wales (1940-50s)
