Alexander's Conflict with the Kambojas

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Ancient Kambojas were originally an inhabitants of Transoxiana region (Pamirs/Badakshan), north of Hindukush, but with time, a section of them crossed Hindukush and had planted colonies in Paropamisadae region i.e Kabol and Kunar/Swat valleys, north of Kabol river. The furthest Kamboja, north of Oxus, became known as Parama Kamboja^[1] while cis-Hindukush settlements came to called Kamboja ^[2]. The Kambojas were famous for their excellent breed of horses (ashva) as well as, as cavalrymen (ashvaka). They therefore, were also popularly known as "Ashvakas"^[3]. The Ashvaka branch of the cis-Hindukush Kambojas inhabited Eastern Afghanistan, between Hindukush and Kabul river and were included within the more general term Kambojas.^[4] French scholars like Dr. E. Lamotte also identify the Ashvakas with the Kambojas.^[5] The Ashvakas or the Kambojas entered into conflict with Alexander the Great as he invaded Central Asia: "The Macedonian conqueror made short shrifts of the arrangements of Darius and over-running Achaemenid Empire, dashed into Afghanistan and encountered stiff resistance of the Kamboja tribes called Aspasios and Assakenois known in the Indian texts as Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas" .^[6] The Ashvayana and Ashvakayana Kamboj clans had fought the invader to a man. When worse came to worst, even the Ashvakayana (Kamboj) women took up arms and joined their fighting husbands, thus preferring "a glorious death to a life of dishonor" ^[7].

Contents 1 Alexander Crosses Hindukush 2 Alexander’s Compaign against the Kambojas 2.1 Battle Against the Ashvayanas (Aspasios) 2.2 Battle with Ashvakayanas (Assakenois) 2.2.1 Arrian’s Account 2.2.2 Curtius’ Account 2.2.3 Diodorus’ Account 2.2.4 Plutarch’s Account 2.2.5 Final scenes from Massaga encounter 3 On the credibility of Arrian 4 Aftermath of Compaign 5 References 6 Books and Megazines 7 See also

[edit] Alexander Crosses Hindukush

In the spring of 327 BCE, Alexander the Great, the Macedonian conqueror crossed Hindukush and was on the road to the Indus. He invited all the chieftains of the former Achaemenian Strappy of Gandhara, in the north of what is now north Pakistan and north-east Afghanistan, to come to him and submit to his authority. Ambhi (Greek: Omphis), ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Jhelum (Greek:Hydaspes), complied. But the chieftains of some hilly clans including the Astekenois, Aspasios and Assakenois known in Indian texts as Hastinayanas, Ashvayanas and Ashvakayanas refused to submit.

[edit] Alexander’s Compaign against the Kambojas

At Nikaia, near modern Jallabad, Alexander divided his army into two parts, one under Hepaistion and Perdikkas was ordered to proceed through Kabul to Gandhara and second part of which Alexander personally took command, and which included the select force of shield-bearing guards, foot-companions, archers, Agrianians and horse-javelin-men, led them against the Kamboja clans—the Aspasios of Kunar/Alishang valleys, the Guraeans of the Guraeus (Panjkora) valley and the Assakenois of the Swat and Buner valleys. These highlanders, called "parvatiya Ayudhajivinah" by Panini^[8], were very fiercely independent autonomous clans who never easily submitted to any foreign invader. It was indeed a hard work for Alexander to take their strongholds, of which Massaga and Aornus need special mention.^[9]

[edit] Battle Against the Ashvayanas (Aspasios)

• Ascending the Kunar valley, Alexander came into conflict with the Ashvayanas. They were brave people and offered stubborn resistance to the invader. Alexander was seriously wounded in the right shoulder by a dart and his officers Ptolemy and Leonatos were also injured. Next morning however, Alexander succeeded in breaching one of the walls of their citadel. Finding them thus besieged, the Ashvayanas issued from the gate of citadel and made for the hills. Macedonians razed the city to the ground and proceeded against another clan of the Ashvayanas known as Andakas.

• The Andakas put up some resistance but lsoon capitulated against heavy odds. Leaving Andaka citadel under charge of Krateros, Alexander proceeded along river Kunar against the Gorys, the main branch of the Ashvayanas. The defenders also set fire to their city and retired to the mountains. The Macedonians gave them hot pursuit. Ptolemy, with his contigent, first chased them on horseback, but when the ascent became steep to ascend, they proceeded on foot till they were near the Ashvayanas. The Ashvayana chief turned back and struck Ptolemy on the breast with a long spear which pierced his cuirass but unfortunately could not enter into his body. Like the stroke of lightening, Ptolemy smote Gorys chief on the thigh and as the latter tumbled, Ptolemy cut off his arms. On the death of their chief, some of the Ashvayanas took to their heels, while others wheeled around to rescue his corpse and offered a grim resistance. By that time, Alexander also reached spt and reinforced the embatteled contigent of Ptolemy. A bitter struggle ensued thence after. At last, the Ashvayanas vanished into the hills.

• Then, Alexander crossed the mountains and reached a city named Arigaon in the province of Bajaur. Here the story of Gorys was repeated. The Arigaonians burnt their place and fled to the hills. Alexander ordered to fortify the citadel of Arigaon to be developed into a strong military base for the Macedonians.

• Alexander’s detectives found that the fleeing Ashvayanas had assembled on remote hill. Learning this, Alexander, accompanied by Ptolemy and Leonnatos, proceeded in that direction. Seeing the Macedonians approach, the Ashvayanas made a tactical mistake by descending into a plain ground on a small hill to give the enemy a decisive show. The conflict between the two armies was indeed sharp indeed. The Ashvayanas though “the stoutest warriors of the neighborhood” (aacording to Arrian) were confident of their numbers and disdainful of the Macedonians. This complacency, coupled with cooping-up of large numbers in a small place told upon their mobility. The determined attacks by Alexander, Ptolemy and Leonnatos from three different directions finally broke their ranks. Hence after a display of grim contest, the Ashvayanas gave way. Macedonians captured 40,000 men and 230,00 oxen which, barring the element of exaggeration, shows that it was not really an army of tained soldiers but an agglomeration of whole tribes, including a large number of non-combatants. It appears that they had assembled there either for purpose of safety or in course of their movements, with the result that they were not all trained for fighting. On the other hand, Alexander’s army was fully trained and by that time also was well experienced in mountain warfare. Hence it was, in reality, an encounter of a disciplined army and a dense mass of tribal people than a fight between two hosts of requisite training and preparation.

• It appears that the Ashvayanas were good agriculturists and cattle breeders. This is clear from the big number of bullocks, 230,00 according to Arrian, of the size and shape superior to what the Macedonians had known, which Alexander captured from them and sent to Macedonia for agriculture. This fact is in perfect agreement with Kautiliya’s Arthashastra which attests that besides warfare, the Kambojas also practiced cattle-breeding and agriculture^[10].

[edit] Battle with Ashvakayanas (Assakenois)

• After reducing the Ashvayanas, Alexander marched against the hardy Ashvakayanas, the Assakenois of the classical writings. Asasakenois inhabited Swat valley and were strongly entrenched in Massaga, Bazira, Ora and Aornos. They faced Alexander with an army of 30,000 cavalry, 30000 infantry and 30 elephants.^[11]. Seven thousands mercenary soldiers joined from Abhisara^[12]. The Ashvakayanas had fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to the invader in many of their strongholds like the cities of Ora, Bazira and Massaga. The fort of Massaga could only be reduced after several days of bloody fighting in which Alexander himself was wounded seriously in the ankle.

• At the very outset, Alexander made a tactical move to retreat his forces so to beguile the Ashvakayanas out of their fort of Massaga. About seven thousand Ashvakayanas force-charged the Macedonians helter-skelter, whereupon, Alexander suddenly wheeled around and attacked back, killing 200 and driving the rest into the citadel. Then Alexander brought his famed Phallanx against their fortifications. From the citadel, rain of arrows poured on Macedonians, one injuring Alexander himself.

• Next day, Alexander pounded the fort-wall with war ballists and his soldiers tried to rush in through the breach, but were repelled back by the defenders.

• Next morning, Macedonians returned to assault and started shooting from the Ballist machines as well as from the wood-tower into the fort.

• Next day, a bridge was thrown-in to reach the citadel but, as the Macedonian troops thronged on it, it collapsed, hurtling them all down. Taking advantage of this, the defenders started pouring rain of arrows and stones and whatever articles they could snatch from top. Some of the Ashvakayanas issued from the posterns and struck the invaders hard at the close quarters. It was indeed a disaster day for the Macedonians.

• On fifth day, Assakenian chieftain, “Assakenos”, was hit by a missile from the war engine of the invaders and was instantly killed. The battle was resumed by Cleophis (q.v.), the mother of the deceased leader, who also stood determined to defend her motherland to the last extremity. The example of mother Cleophis assuming the supreme command of the military also brought the entire women of the locality into the fighting.^[13]. In this famous battle of Massaga which spread over several days, Macedonians had suffered heavy losses. The tribesmen also, likewise, suffered heavy losses, gave way and therefore, entered into a peace agreement with the invaders. It is very interesting to know, as we see below, that world’s greatest military General, Alexander the Great, could only reduce Massaga fort by resorting to abject treachery and despicable action of betrayal, which, forever stand a blot on his military reputation.

[edit] Arrian’s Account

According to Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon') (92 c AD – 175 c AD), Assakenos, the war leader of the Assakenois, fell on fifth day of fight and the Ashvakayanas sent a herald to Alexander for peace talks. The two sides came to an agreement ensuring the safe vacation of the tribesmen and providing that the mercenaries would join the Macedonians. On this, the defenders left the citadel and encamped on a hill facing the Macedonian camp. But, adds Arrian, “ they had no wish to fight against their own countrymen and resolved to arise by midnight and flee to their homes” . When Alexander was informed of this, he surrounded the hill the same night with all his troops and cut the tribesmen assembled there to pieces ^[14].

[edit] Curtius’ Account

Curtius (Quintus Curtius Rufus), a Roman historian belonging to the later half of the first c AD, does not refer to any such train of events.

[edit] Diodorus’ Account

Diodorus (Diodorus Siculus) (93 c BCE 30 c BCE), clearly gives the lies to Arrian. He does not mention any agreement whereby the tribesmen had consented to join Alexander and later changed their mind and planned to flee in the dead of night. But he positively states that when the tribesmen had evacuated the city, in accordance with terms of the agreement, and retired to a distance of 80 stadia, without harboring any thought of treachery, Alexander “who was actuated by an implacable enemity”, and “ had kept his troops under arms ready for action”, suddenly pounced upon the tribesmen (who were unaware and unprepared) and “made a great slaughter of their ranks” ^[15]. Baffled by this unbecoming behavior, which flouted all canons of propriety and dignified conduct, the tribesmen loudly protested that they were being attacked in violation of the sworn obligations and also reminded him by invoking the gods in whose names Alexander had taken oaths to faithfully observe the terms of the agreement. But Alexander, throwing the gods and the oaths in their names, to the winds, retorted: “My covenant merely bound me to let you depart from the city, and by no means a league of perpetual amity between them and the Macedonians”^[16]. Clearly, he implied that he was only to allow the tribesmen to move out of the citadel and was then free to attack them unaware and massacre them. “Hardly could knavery know higher limits” ^[17].

[edit] Plutarch’s Account

Plutarch (Mestrius Plutarchus) (46 c AD 127 c AD) gives altogether a different version of the happenings. He says that Alexander “incurred serious losses and accordingly, concluded a treaty of peace with them but, afterwards, as they were going away, set upon them while the were on the road and killed them all". ^[18]. He thereby clearly suggests that the peace proposal was initiated by Alexander himself, when after five days of hard fighting (nine days according to Curtius), he failed to take the Massaga citadel and had suffered heavy losses; and having beguiled the the Ashvakayanas by treaty of peace, made them retire from the city, betrayed them and attacked them, all of a sudden from behind. Rightly, therefore, Plutarch denounces Alexander by saving that “this rests as foul blot on his martial fame”^[19].

“In view of these clear remarks of Plutarch, the accounts of Arrian seem to be a tendentious effort to window-dress a despicable act of abject treachery ad perjury. Its unreliability is amply manifest from the simple fact that, according to him, only 25 men of the Macedonians side fell in the hard fighting of five days ^[20] (nine days according to Curtius) which fact is amply contradicted by Plutarch‘s remarks that they had incurred heavy losses" ^[21].

[edit] Final scenes from Massaga encounter

Diodorus gives a detailed account as to how the brave Ashvakayanas had conducted themselves when faced with the sudden treacherous onslaught from Alexander. Writes Diodorus: "Undismayed by the greatness of their danger, the Ashvakayanas drew their ranks together in the form of a ring within which they placed their women and childern to guard them on all sides against their assailants. As they had now become desperate, and by their audacity and feats of valour, had made the conflict in which they closed, a hot work for the enemy,--great was the astonishment and alarm which the peril of the crisis had created. For, as the combatants were locked together fighting hand-to-hand, death and wounds were dealt round in every variety of form. While many were thus wounded, and not a few killed, the women, taking the arms of the fallen, fought side by side with their men. Accordingly, some of them who had supplied themselves with arms, did their best to cover their husbands with their shields, while the others, who were without arms, did much to impede the enemy by flinging themselves upon the enemy and catching hold of their shields. The defenders, however, after fighting desperately along with their wives, were at last overpowered by superior numbers, and thus met a glorious death which they would have disdained to exchange for the life of dishonour" ^[22].

Commenting on the heroic resistance and courage displayed by the Ashvakayanas (Kambojas), in the face of treacherous onslaught of Alexander, Dr Buddha Prakash remarks: "Hardly could any Thermopylae be more glorious !" ^[23].

According to Curtius: "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles."

In the aftermath of general slaughter and arson committed by Alexander at Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenian people fled to a high fortress called Aornos. But Alexander followed them close behind their heels and captured the strategic hill-fort but only after the fourth day of a bloody fight. The story of Massaga was again repeated at Aornos and a similar carnage on the tribal-people followed here too.

Writing on Alexander's campaign against the Assakenois, Victor Hanson comments: "After promising the surrounded Assacenis their lives upon capitulation, he executed all their soldiers who had surrendered. Their strongholds at Ora and Aornus were also similarly stormed. Garrisons were probably all slaughtered.”^[24]

[edit] On the credibility of Arrian

Scholaras like Dr W. W. Tarn, the unquestioned authority on the subject, after deep and thorough analysis of classical accounts, concludes that Arrian has delibrately tried to throw a clever veil over the losses suffered by Alexander and has presented the Macedonian fatility figures in much reduced numbers.^[25]. He has also cast a veil over how the Ashvakayanas had conducted themselves when faced with sudden treacherous onslaught from Alexander at Massaga, but Diodorus, his predecessor gives a vivid account of the train of events at Massaga, thus further lighlighting Arrian's unreliability. Arrian has also tried to window-dress the despicable act of abject treachery and unexcusable perjury for Alexander's blatant violation of the peace treaty with the Ashvakayanas, thereby slaughtering the entire garrison of tribesmen as well as the innocent population of Massaga, and razing the Massaga city to rubbles. And last but not the least, Arrian also asserts that the initiative for peace talks at Massaga had come from the Ashvakayanas, but the statement of his predecessor, Plutarch, unequivocally prove that the peace iniative was started by Alexander himself. The above facts are amply confirmed when Arrian's accounts are critically analysed in the light of statements of his predecessors like Plutarch, Diodorus and Curtius etc ^[26].

[edit] Aftermath of Compaign

Arrian attests that Sisikottos, who had helped Alexander in this campaign against the Ashvaka Kshatriyas, was made the governor of Aornos. Alexander’s victory of Aornos was also elusive since, as Curtuis clearly attests, Alexander only conquered the position rather than the enemy though “he gave to this success the appearance of a great victory by offering sacrifices and worship to gods” ^[27]. It is very clear that Ashvakas were defeated but no crushed. Hardly a few months had passed when brave and indomitable Ashvakayanas rose and revolted against the Macedonians and assasinated the Greek governor Nicanor of Massaga; and also reduced Sisikottos to such straights that it left him no alternative except to report the matter to Alexander at Glansai, asking his assistance. Alexander sent Phillipos an Tyriaspes to quell the Ashvakayana rebellion. How far they succeeded we have no means to know, but since Tyriaspes soon had to be replaced with Oxyartes, Alexander’s father-in-law, which shows that everything was not going well for Alexander in the land of the Ashvakas ^[28].

[edit] References

1. ^ Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, 1874, p 365, John Muir - 1874.
2. ^ Mahabharata II.27.20-27; Geographical Data in Early Puranas, 1972, pp 165-168, Dr M. R. Singh; The Problems of Ancient ndia, 2000, p 1-10, K. D. Sethna; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Greco-Sunga Period of Indian History, Or, the North-West India of the Second Century B.C. 1973, p 39, Mehta Vasishtha Dev Mohan; Ancient Indian Republics: From the Earliest Times to the 6th Century A.D. 1976, p 103, Shive Nandan Misra.
3. ^ Hindu Polity, Part I & II, 1978, p 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal.
4. ^ Op cit., 1978, pp 121, 140, Dr K. P. Jayswal.
5. ^ Historie du Bouddhisme Indien, p 110, E. Lamotte; also see: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; History of Panjab, Vol I, 1997, p 225, Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi; History of Poros , 1967, p 38, Dr Buddha Prakash; Ancient Kamboja, People and country, 1981, pp 271-72, 278, Dr J. L. Kamboj; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 119, 192, K. S. Dardi. Dr J. W. McCrindle, Dr Romila Thapar, Dr R. C. Majumdar etc also think that Ashvakas were Kamboja people
6. ^ Panjab Past and Present, pp 9-10; also see: History of Porus, pp 12, 38, Dr Buddha Parkash
7. ^ Diodorus in McCrindle, p 270
8. ^ Ashtadhyayi 4.3.91
9. ^ Worthington, p. 162, from an extract of A. K. Narain, 'Alexander the Great', Greece and Rome 12 1965, p 155–165.
10. ^ Arthashastra 11.1.1-4.
11. ^ Curtius.
12. ^ Abhisara was an off-shoot of Kamboja (See: Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 133, 219/220, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B. N. Mukerjee; A History of India, p 269-71, N. R. Ray, N. K. Sinha; Journal of Indian History, P 304, University of Allahabad. Department of Modern Indian History, University of Kerala - 1921.
13. ^ (Ancient India, 1971, p 99, Dr R. C. Majumdar; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Foreign Invasion, p 46, Dr R. K Mukerjee.
14. ^ The Invasion of Alexander the Great, pp 68-69, J. W. McCrindle.
15. ^ Diodorus in McCrindle, op cit., p 269.
16. ^ Ibid.
17. ^ History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 228, Dr Buddha Prakash.
18. ^ Plutarch in McCrndle, op cit., p 306.
19. ^ Ibid.
20. ^ Arrian in McCrindle, op cit, p 69.
21. ^ History of Punjab, Volume I, p 229, Editors Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi.
22. ^ See: Diodorus in McCrindle, p 269/270; History of Punjab, 1997, p 229, Editors: Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi; Classical Accounts of India, p 112-113; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 283-286, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 134, Kirpal Singh).
23. ^ History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 229.
24. ^ Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power, 2002, p 86, Victor Hanson.
25. ^ Cambridge Ancient History, Vol VI, p 409,Article contributed by Dr W. W. Tarn; Alexander the Great, 2003, Dr W. W. Tarn; History of Poros, 1990, pp 63, 93, (Punjabi Trans. Raja Poros), Dr Buddha Prakash; Ancient Kambojas, People and the Country, 1991, pp 280-296, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
26. ^ History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, pp 228-229; Raja Poros, 1990, pp 63, 93, Dr Buddha Prakash; Ancient Kambojas, People and the Country, 1991, pp 280-296, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 127-140, Kirpal Singh; These Kamboj People, 1979, pp 117-129.
27. ^ Curtius in McCrindle, p 200; History of Punjab, Vol II, p 232, Dr Buddha Prakash.
28. ^ History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 234, Editors Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi.

[edit] Books and Megazines

• History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, Editors Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi
• Historie du bouddhisme Indien, Dr E. Lammotte
• Alexander the Great, 2003 - Cambridge University Press, W. W. Tarn
• Political History of Ancient India, 1996, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury
• The Invasion Of India By Alexander The Great As Described By Arrian, Q. Curtius, Diodorus, Plutarch And Justin, J. W. McCrindle
• Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great's Ill-fated Journey Across Asia, John Prevas
• Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power, Victor Hanson
• Alexander: A History of the Origin and Growth of the Art of War from the Earliest Times to the Battle of Ipsus, 301 Bc, With a Detailed Account of the Campaigns, 1996- Da Capo Press, Theodore Ayrault Dodge
• Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction, 2002 - Oxford University Press, USA, A. B. Bosworth and E. J. Baynham
• The Wars of Alexander the Great, 2002- Osprey Publishing, Waldemar Heckel
• Classical Accounts of India, J. W. McCrindle
• History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Unity, Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar
• The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, S Kirpal Singh
• These Kamboja People, 1979, K. S. Dardi
• Ancient India, 2003, Dr V. D. Mahajan
• Problems of Ancient India, 2000, K. D. Sethna
• The Pathan., 1967, Olaf Caroe
• Historical Essays, Second Series, 3rd edition, Edward A. Freeman, M. A., HON. D. C. L. & LL.D., Regius Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford, London Macmillan and Co. And New York,1892
• Alexander the Great, 2003, Dr W. W. Tarn
• Studies in Indian History and Civilization, Dr Buddha Parkash
• Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, Dr J. L. Kamboj
• Hindu Polity, A contitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, p 140, 121, Dr K. P. Jayswal
• History of Poros, Dr Buddha Prakash
• Glimpses of Ancient Punjab, 1965, Dr Buddha Prakash
• Political and Social Movements in Ancient Punjab, 1964, Dr Buddha Prakash

[edit] See also

• Kambojas
• Ashvakas
• Kamboja Horsemen
• Cleophis