Mercenary

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Mercenary (disambiguation).

A mercenary, is a person who takes part in an armed conflict and "is motivated to take part in the hostilities essentially by the desire for private gain and, in fact, is promised, by or on behalf of a Party to the conflict, material compensation substantially in excess of that promised or paid to combatants of similar ranks and functions in the armed forces of that Party".^[1]^[2] When the term "mercenary" is used to refer to a soldier of a national, regular army, it usually considered to have pejorative connotations.

1 Mercenaries and the laws of war
- 1.1 Mercenaries and municipal (domestic) law
2 Gurkhas and Foreign Legionnaires
3 Private Military Companies (PMCs)
4 Mercenaries through History
5 Mercenaries in popular culture
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 Footnotes

[edit] Mercenaries and the laws of war

[edit] Mercenaries and municipal (domestic) law

Some countries try to stop their citizens fighting in conflicts unless they are under the control of their own armed forces:

In 2003, France criminalized mercenary activities as defined by the protocol to the Geneva convention for French citizens, permanent residents and legal entities. (Penal Code, L436-1, L436-2, L436-3, L436-4, L436-5).
In 1998 South Africa passed the "Foreign Military Assistance Act" which banned citizens, or residents, from any involvement in foreign conflicts except in humanitarian operations unless a government committee gave its approval for a deployment. In 2005 the legislation was being reviewed by the government because of South African citizens working as security guards in Iraq during the Iraq occupation and the fallout of the case against Mark Thatcher for the "possible funding and logistical assistance in relation to an alleged attempted coup in Equatorial Guinea" organized by Simon Mann.^[6]
Under United States law (the "Neutrality Act"), an American citizen who participates in an armed conflict to which the United States is neutral may be subject to criminal penalties. (In actuality, the Neutrality Act only prohibits citizens from participating in conflicts, that the U.S. is involved in, on the side of states that the government has declared war against; also, it appears to have been repealed.) The Anti-Pinkerton Act of 1893 (5 USC 3108) prohibited the US Government from using employees of the Pinkerton Detective Agency or similar companies as strikebreakers. In 1977, the US Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals interpreted this statute to prohibit the U.S. Government's employment of companies that offer "mercenary, quasi-military forces as strikebreakers and armed guards" for hire. United States ex rel. Weinberger v. Equifax, 557 F.2d 456, 462 (5th Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 1035 (1978). A DoD interim rule effective 16 June 2006 revises DoD Instruction 3020.41 to authorize contractor personnel other than private security contractor personnel to use deadly force against enemy armed forces only in self-defense. 71 Fed. Reg. 34826. According to the interim rule, private security contractor personnel are also authorized to use deadly force when necessary to execute their security mission to protect assets/persons, consistent with the mission statement contained in their contract. It is the responsibility of the combatant commander to ensure that private security contract mission statements do not authorize the performance of any inherently Governmental military functions, such as preemptive attacks, or any other types of attacks. Otherwise, civilians who accompany the U.S. Armed Forces lose their law of war protection from direct attack if and for such time as they take a direct part in hostilities. On August 18, 2006, the U.S. Comptroller General rejected bid protest arguments that U.S. Army contracts violated the Anti-Pinkerton Act by calling for the contractor to provide armed convoy escort vehicles and labor, weapons, and equipment for internal security operations at Victory Base Complex, Iraq. The Comptroller General reasoned that the act was not violated because the contracts did not require the contractor to provide "quasi-military forces as strikebreakers."^[7]

Switzerland banned its nationals from serving as mercenaries in 1927 with the one exception being the Vatican Swiss Guards.
In Austria anyone who voluntarily serves in the armed forces of another nation automatically loses his Austrian citizenship.
Great Britain passed the Foreign Enlistment Act in the late 18th century, making it illegal for British subjects to join the armed forces of any state which was at war with another state at peace with Great Britain. During the Greek War of Independence a number of British volunteers fought with the Greek rebels, which could have been illegal; however it was unclear whether the Greek rebels were a "state" for the purposes of this Act, but the law was clarified to say that they were. There was some talk of using this Act against British people who fought for the International Brigade in the Spanish Civil War and the FNLA in the Angolan Civil War (see above) but nothing happened.
- Note the existence of the Atholl Highlanders, which appear to be Europe's only legal, private military force. By a quirk of history, this is a Scottish regiment, not part of the British Army, commanded by the Duke of Atholl. The regiment is primarily a ceremonial force.
In Italy it is illegal to recruit Italian citizens on Italian soil for fighting on behalf of a foreign government without approval by the Italian government.

[edit] Gurkhas and Foreign Legionnaires

The better known units in which nationals of a country serve in another nation's armed forces are the Gurkha regiments serving in the British and Indian armies, and the French Foreign Legion. Gurkhas who serve in the British Army take the oath of allegiance to the British monarch, operate in formed units of British Army and abide by the rules and regulations under which all British soldiers serve.^[8] Similar rules apply for Gurkhas serving in the Indian Army. French Foreign Legionnaires are formed units of the French Foreign Legion which is deployed and fights as an organized unit of the French Army. This means that as members of the armed forces of Britain, India or France they are not mercenaries under APGC77 Art 47.e and APGC77 Art 47.f.

[edit] Private Military Companies (PMCs)

A strand of the contemporary mercenary trade sometimes goes under the label of the Private military company or PMC, which provides logistics, manpower, training and other services. PMCs' contractors are civilians (in governments, international and non-governmental organizations) authorized to accompany a force in the field. Hence, the terminology "civilian contractor" is sometimes used. PMCs may use force, hence they can be defined as: "legally established enterprises that make a profit by either providing services involving the potential exercise of force in a systematic way and by military means, and/or by the transfer of that potential to clients through training and other practices, such as logistics support, equipment procurement, and intelligence gathering".^[9]

It can be argued that paramilitary forces under private control are functionally mercenaries instead of security guards or advisors. However, national governments reserve the right to strictly regulate the number, nature and armaments of such private forces and argue that provided they are not employed in frontline pro-active military activities that they are not mercenaries. That said, they do not enjoy a sterling reputation among government soldiers and officers — several members of the United States Military Command have raised questions about the behavior of such companies in hotzones. In September 2005, Brigadier General Karl Horst, deputy commander of the Third Infantry Division in charge of security in Baghdad after the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, said this of DynCorp and other security firms in Iraq: "These guys run loose in this country and do stupid stuff. There's no authority over them, so you can't come down on them hard when they escalate force... They shoot people, and someone else has to deal with the aftermath. It happens all over the place."^[10]

If employees of PMCs are involved in pro-active military activities they are likely to be called mercenaries in the press, and their employers will be called mercenary companies. Four companies which the mass media called mercenary companies in the 1990s, and the locations of their activities were:

Executive Outcomes-Angola, Sierra Leone, and many other locations around the world (closed 31 December 1998)
Sandline International-Papua New Guinea, Sierra Leone (closed 16 April 2004)
Gurkha Security Guards Ltd- Sierra Leone.
DynCorp International - Bosnia, Somalia, Angola, Haiti, Colombia, Kosovo, Kuwait, Afghanistan (active)

In 2004 the industry was given a huge boost because PMCs were employed by the US and other coalition members to do security work in Iraq. In March 2004, four employees of Blackwater USA who were guarding food shipments were attacked and killed in Fallujah. In the well publicised incident, the killings and subsequent desecration of the bodies were contributory causes for the First Battle of Fallujah, which occurred shortly after the killings. PMCs also received a boost from Afghanistan operations, where many PMC employees serve as private security forces for heads of state such as Hamid Karzai.^{[citation needed]}

Private military companies tend to be frowned upon by the United Nations (even so, the UN hired Executive Outcomes to do some logistic support in Africa). Controversy has arisen in other areas as well, such with Dyncorp's actions in Bosnia during the Balkan operations of the 1990s, in which several of its soldiers were found to have engaged in sex trafficking, specifically involving children. There is also the question of whether or not soldiers under the employ of PMCs are held appropriately accountable for their actions in conflict, which is to say the same level of the Armed Forces of that nation. One common argument for the use of PMCs (also used by the companies themselves, such as in Sandline's corporate whitepapers), is that PMCs may be useful in combating genocides and slaughters in situations where the UN is unwilling or unable to intervene.^[11]

In a report on PMCs by the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) released in February 2002, the FCO noted that the demand for military services from the UN and international organizations could mean that it would be cheaper to employ PMCs than to use troops from members states. However at that time, after considering the use of PMCs to support UN operations, the UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, decided not to do so.^[12]

[edit] Mercenaries through History

[edit] China

In rare cases, mercenaries were used in Ancient and Imperial China. Most notably during the Tang dynasty and Ming dynasty.^{[citation needed]}

During the Russo-Japanese War, both sides were known to use Chinese mercenaries against each other as raiders and as lines of communications security troops.^{[citation needed]}

During the early stages of the Second Sino-Japanese War (before Pearl Harbor) America didn't want to become overtly involved in the conflict (due to a non-aggression pact with Japan), yet felt an obligation to assist the Chinese in stopping Japanese aggression. So the United States sent Claire Chennault to assist China and created the American Volunteer Group (AVG), better known as Flying Tigers. The pilots earned roughly $600-700 basic pay per month, plus an extra $500 per confirmed Japanese aircraft that was shot down courtesy of Madame Chiang Kai-shek.

[edit] Africa

[edit] 20th century

In the 20th century, mercenaries have been mostly involved in conflicts on the continent of Africa. There have been a number of unsavory incidents in the brushfire wars of Africa, some involving recruitment of naïve European and American men "looking for adventure" and thrusting them into combat situations where they would not survive to get paid.

Many of the adventurers in Africa who have been described as mercenaries were in fact ideologically motivated to support particular governments, and would not fight "for the highest bidder". A good example of this would be the British South Africa Police (BSAP), a paramilitary, mounted infantry force formed by the British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes in 1889/1890 that evolved and continued until 1970.

Particularly notorious mercenaries include:

Mike Hoare was involved in the Congo Crisis in the early 1960s and a failed coup in Seychelles in 1978.
Bob Denard was involved in numerous African campaigns in many countries, often with the covert support of France. However, his particular specialty was intervening in the Comoros. The last time was in 1995, when he staged a coup which failed (the military of the French Government intervened to oust Denard).
Simon Mann was involved with Executive Outcomes ventures in Angola and Sierra Leone (see below). In 2004 he was found guilty in Zimbabwe of "attempting to buy weapons" (BBC 27 August) allegedly for a coup in Equatorial Guinea (see below).

Mercenaries fought for the Biafrans in the Fourth Commando Brigade during the Nigerian Civil War, (1967-1970).^[13] Other mercenaries flew aircraft for the Biafrans. In October 1966, for example, a Royal Air Burundi DC-4M Argonaut, flown by mercenary Heinrich Wartski, also known as Henry Wharton, crashlanded in Cameroon with military supplies destined for Biafra.^[14]

In the mid-1970s John Banks, a Briton, recruited mercenaries to fight for the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) against the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) in the civil war that broke out when Angola gained independence from Portugal in 1975. When captured, John Derek Barker's role as a leader of mercenaries in Northern Angola led the judges to send him to face the firing squad. Nine others were imprisoned. Three more were executed: American Daniel Gearhart was sentenced to death for advertising himself as a mercenary in an American newspaper; Andrew McKenzie and Costas Georgiou (the self styled "Colonel Callan"), who had both served in the British army, were sentenced to death for murder^[3].

American Robert C. MacKenzie was killed in the Malal Hills in February 1995, while commanding Gurkha Security Guards (GSG) in Sierra Leone. GSG pulled out soon afterwards and was replaced by Executive Outcomes. Both were employed by the Sierra Leone government as military advisers and to train the government soldiers. It has been alleged that the firms provided soldiers who took an active part in the fighting against the Revolutionary United Front (RUF).

A fictional portrait of mercenary operations in the 1970s is Frederick Forsyth's book, The Dogs of War, which was set on the island of Malabo - renamed "Zangaro" in the novel - and given a platinum deposit. Since the discovery of oil there in the mid-1990s, it does not need a fictional platinum deposit for it to be of interest to financiers and mercenaries. In August 2004 there was the a plot to overthrow the government of Equatorial Guinea in Malabo. Currently eight South African apartheid-era soldiers (the leader of whom is Nick du Toit), six Armenian aircrew and five local men are in Black Beach prison on the island. They are accused of being an advanced guard for a coup to place Severo Moto in power.^[15] ^[16] CNN reported on August 25, that:

Defendant Nick du Toit said he was introduced to Thatcher in South Africa last year by Simon Mann, the leader of 70 men arrested in Zimbabwe in March suspected of being a group of mercenaries heading to Equatorial Guinea.^[17]

It was planned, it is alleged, by Simon Mann (a founder of Executive Outcomes) a former SAS officer. On 27 August 2004 he was found guilty in Zimbabwe of purchasing arms, allegedly for use in the plot. (He admitted trying to procure dangerous weapons, but said that they were to guard a diamond mine in DR Congo.) It is alleged that there is a paper trail from him which implicates Sir Mark Thatcher, Lord Archer and Ely Calil (a Lebanese-British oil trader).^[18]

The BBC reported in an article entitled "Q&A: Equatorial Guinea coup plot":

The BBC's Newsnight television programme saw the financial records of Simon Mann's companies showing large payments to Nick du Toit and also some $2m coming in - though the source of this funding they say is largely untraceable.^[19]

The BBC reported on 10 September 2004 that in Zimbabwe:

[Simon Mann], the British leader of a group of 67 alleged mercenaries accused of plotting a coup in Equatorial Guinea has been sentenced to seven years in jail... The other passengers got 12 months in jail for breaking immigration laws while the two pilots got 16 months...The court also ordered the seizure of Mann's $3m Boeing 727 and $180,000 found on board.^[20]

[edit] Ancient Egypt

An early recorded use of foreign auxiliaries dates back to Ancient Egypt, the thirteenth century BC, when Pharaoh Ramesses II used 11,000 mercenaries during his battles. A long established foreign corps in the Egyptian forces were the Medjay - a generic term given to tribal scouts and light infantry recruited from Nubia serving from the late period of the Old Kingdom through that of the New Kingdom. Other warriors recruited from outside the borders of Egypt included Libyan, Syrian and Canaanite contingents under the New Kingdom and Sherdens from Sardinia who appear in their distinctive horned helmets on wall paintings as body guards for Ramesses II. ^[21]

[edit] Europe

[edit] Mercenaries in the classic era

Many Greek mercenaries fought for the Persian Empire during the early classic era. For example:

Xerxes I, king of Persia, who invaded Greece in 484 BC employed Greek mercenaries. The best remembered is Demaratus, for his warning to Xerxes not to underestimate the Spartans before the Battle of Thermopylae.

In Anabasis, Xenophon recounts how Cyrus the Younger hired a large army of Greek mercenaries (the "Ten Thousand") in 401 BC to seize the throne of Persia from his brother, Artaxerxes II. Though Cyrus' army was victorious at the Battle of Cunaxa, Cyrus himself was killed in battle and the expedition rendered moot. Stranded deep in enemy territory, the Spartan general Clearchus and most of the other Greek generals were subsequently killed by treachery. Xenophon played an instrumental role in encouraging "The Ten Thousand" Greek army to march north to the Black Sea in an epic fighting retreat.

Memnon of Rhodes (380–333 BC): was the commander of the Greek mercenaries working for the Persian King Darius III when Alexander the Great of Macedonia invaded Persia in 334 BC and won the Battle of the Granicus River. Alexander also employed Greek mercenaries during his campaigns. These were men who fought for him directly and not those who fought in city-state units attached to his army.

Carthage contracted Balearic Islands shepherds as slingshooters during the Punic wars against Rome. The vast majority of the Carthaginian military - except the highest officers, the navy, and the home guard - were mercenaries.

Members of independent Thracian tribes such as the Bessi and Dii often joined the ranks of large organized armies as mercenaries.

The Sons of Mars were Italian mercenaries used by the Greek kings of Syracuse until after the Punic Wars.

Celtic mercenaries were a staple of many ancient armies. The king of Bythnia hired Galatians to his armies and gave them a parcel of land, which became Galatia, after their defeat, brought on by their raids and warfare against the various cities in the regions. There were also the semi-mythic amsaig, noted foremost as the mercenaries of Cu Chullain, but the term advanced later as a term for various Gaelic mercenaries.^{[citation needed]} Another figure in oral legend, Milesius was given the princess Scota after conducting a successful campaign for Ancient Egypt.

In the late Roman Empire, it became increasingly difficult for Emperors and generals to raise military units from the citizenry for various reasons: lack of manpower, lack of time available for training, lack of materials, and, inevitably, political considerations. Therefore, beginning in the late 4th century, the empire often contracted whole bands of barbarians either within the legions or as autonomous foederati. The barbarians were Romanized and surviving veterans were established in areas requiring population. The Varangian Guard of the Byzantine Empire is the best known formation made up of barbarian mercenaries. (see next section)

[edit] Mercenaries in medieval warfare

Byzantine Emperors followed the Roman practice and contracted foreigners especially for their personal corps guard called the Varangian Guard. They were chosen among war-prone peoples, of whom the Varangians (Vikings) were preferred. Their mission was to protect the Emperor and Empire and since they did not have links to the Greeks, they were expected to be ready to suppress rebellions. One of the most famous guards was the future king Harald III of Norway, also known as Harald Hardrada ("Hardreign") who arrived in Constantinople in 1035, was employed as a Varangian Guard. He participated in eighteen battles and became Akolythos, the commander, of the Guard before returning home in 1043. He was killed at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 when his army was defeated by an English army commanded by King Harold Godwinson.

In Italy, the condottiero was a military chief offering his troops, the condottieri, to city-states.

During the ages of the Taifa kingdoms of the Iberian peninsula, Christian knights like El Cid could fight for some Muslim ruler against his Christian or Muslim enemies.

The Almogavars originally fought for Catalonia and Aragon, but as the Catalan Company, they followed Roger de Flor in the service of the Byzantine Empire. Spanish (Catalan) and German mercenaries also had prominent role in the Serbian victory over Bulgarians in the Battle of Velbuzd 1330.

During the later middle ages, Free Companies (or Free Lances) were formed, consisting of companies of mercenary troops. Nation-states lacked the funds needed to maintain standing forces, so they tended to hire free companies to serve in their armies during wartime. Such companies typically formed at the ends of periods of conflict, when men-at-arms were no longer needed by their respective governments. The veteran soldiers thus looked for other forms of employment, often becoming mercenaries. Free Companies would often specialize in forms of combat that required longer periods of training that was not available in the form of a mobilized militia. The White Company^[22] commanded by Sir John Hawkwood is the best known English Free Company of the 14th Century. A Welshman Owain Lawgoch (Owain of the Red Hand) formed a free company and fought for the French against the English during the Hundred Years War, before being assassinated by a Scot by the name of Jon Lamb under the orders of the English Crown in 1378 during the siege of Mortagne^[23].

[edit] Mercenaries in the 15th and 16th centuries

The Saika mercenary group (雑賀衆, saikashuu[1]) of the Kii Province, Japan, played a significant role during the Siege of Ishiyama Hongan-ji that took place between August 1570 to August 1580. The Saikashuu were famed for the support of Ikko Buddhist sect movements and greatly impeded the advance of Oda Nobunaga's forces.

Swiss mercenaries were sought after during the late 15th and early 16th centuries as being an effective fighting force, until their somewhat rigid battle formations became vulnerable to arquebuses and artillery being developed at about that period. See Swiss Guard.

It was then that the German landsknechts, colorful mercenaries with a redoubtable reputation, took over the Swiss forces' legacy and became the most formidable force of the late 15th and throughout the 16th century, being hired by all the powers in Europe and often fighting at opposite sides.

St Thomas More in his Utopia advocated the use of mercenaries in preference to citizens. The barbarian mercenaries employed by the Utopians are thought to be inspired by the Swiss mercenaries.

At approximately the same period, Niccolò Machiavelli argued against the use of mercenary armies in his masterpiece The Prince. His rationale was that since the sole motivation of mercenaries is their pay, they will not be inclined to take the kind of risks that can turn the tide of a battle, but may cost them their lives. He also noted that a mercenary who failed was obviously no good, but one who succeeded may be even more dangerous. He astutely pointed out that a successful mercenary army no longer needs its employer if it is more militarily powerful than its supposed superior. This explained the frequent, violent betrayals that charecterized mercenary/client relations in Italy, because neither side trusted the other. He believed that citizens with a real attachment to their home country will be more motivated to defend it and thus make much better soldiers.

[edit] Mercenaries in the 17th and 18th centuries

After the signing of the Treaty of Limerick (1691) the soldiers of the Irish Army who left Ireland for France took part in what is known as the Flight of the Wild Geese. Subsequently, many made a living from working as mercenaries for continental armies, the most famous of whom was Patrick Sarsfield, who, having fallen mortally wounded at the Battle of Landen fighting for the French, said "If this was only for Ireland".^[24]

During the 17th and 18th century extensive use was made of foreign recruits in the now regimented and highly drilled armies of Europe. About a third of the infantry regiments of the French Royal Army prior to the French Revolution were recruited from outside France. The largest single group were the twelve Swiss regiments (including the Swiss Guard). Other units were German and one Irish Brigade (the "Wild Geese") had originally been made up of Irish volunteers. By 1789 difficulties in obtaining genuinely Irish recruits had led to German and other foreigners making up the bulk of the rank and file. The officers however continued to be drawn from long established Franco-Irish families. During the reign of Louis XV there were also a Scottish (Royal-Ecossais), an Italian (Royal-Italien) and a Walloon (Horion-Liegeois) regiments recruited outside the borders of France. The foreign infantry regiments comprised about 20,000 men in 1733, rising to 48,000 at the time of the Seven Years' War and being reduced in numbers thereafter.

The Spanish Army also made use of permanently established foreign regiments. These comprised three Irish regiments (Irlanda, Hiberni and Ultonia); one Italian (Napoles) and five Swiss (Wimpssen, Reding, Betschart, Traxer and Preux). In addition one regiment of the Royal Guard was recruited from Walloons. The last of these foreign regiments was disbanded in 1815, following recruiting difficulties during the Napoleonic Wars. One complication arising from the use of non-national troops occurred at the battle of Balien in 1808 when the "red Swiss" (so-called from their uniforms) of the invading French Army clashed bloodily with "blue Swiss" in the Spanish service.

[edit] Mercenaries in popular culture

Like piracy, the mercenary ethos resonates with idealized adventure, mystery and danger (see Mercenaries in popular culture)

[edit] See also

Mercenary War (c.240 BC) — also called the Libyan War and the Truceless War by Polybius — was an uprising of mercenary armies formerly in the employ of Carthage, backed by Libyan settlements revolting against Carthaginian control.
Département Protection Sécurité, the security organization of the French far-right party Front National, involved in various mercenary actions and covert operations in Africa
International Peace Operations Association
Volunteer military

[edit] References

Bernales-Ballesteros, Enrique; UNHCHR: Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights on use of mercenaries
Bodin J; Les Suisses au Service de la France; Editions Albion Michael, 1988. ISBN 2-226-03334-3
Chartrand, Rene; "Louis XV's Army - Foreign Infantry"; Osprey 1997. ISBN 1-85532-623-X
Chartrand, Rene; " Spanish Army of the Napoleonic Wars 1793-1808"; Osprey 1998. ISBN 1-1-85532-763-5
Milliard, Todd S.; Overcomming post-colonial myopia: A call to recognize and regulate private military companies(PDF), in Military Law Review Vol 173, June 2003. At the time of publication Major Milliard was a Judge Advocate in the Judge Advocate General's Corps, U.S. Army.

[edit] Further reading

General

United Nations Working Group on the use of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the rights of peoples to self-determination resolution 2005/2 (for 3 years)
Kennedy, Bruce. Soldiers of misfortune a CNN Interactive special on mercenaries
PMCs Monitor: An International Organization which advocates for tighter rules

PMCs

Pelton, Robert Young; Licensed to Kill: Hired Guns in the War on Terror, Crown, (2006), ISBN 1400097819
Scahill, Jeremy; Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army (2007), Nation Books
Mercenary / Private Military Companies (PMCs): Links for mercenary related articles

Other

Military science in western europe in the sixteenth century. Prologue:The nature of armies in the 16th century (pdf): "A given army often included numerous nationalities and languages. The normal Landsknecht regiment included one interpreter per 400 men, and interpreters were commonly budgeted for in the staffs of the field armies of the French, and of German reiter regiments as well. Fluency in multiple languages was a valuable skill for a captain, given that it was not uncommon for armies to consist of a majority of foreign nationals."

[edit] Footnotes

^ Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol 1) Article 47
^ Websters Dictionary defines a mercenary as "one that serves merely for wages; especially a soldier hire."
^ ^a ^b 1976: Death sentence for mercenaries BBC On this day June 28
^ International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries A/RES/44/34 72nd plenary meeting 4 December 1989 (UN Mercenary Convention) Entry into force: 20 October 2001
^ Milliard References Page 5. Paragraph 1
^ Reuters South Africa to review mercenary law, targets Iraq February 2005
^ Brian X. Scott B-298370; B-298490, August 18, 2006,
^ Gurkha terms and conditions of service
^ What is a Private Military Company or PMC? Web article cites Ortiz, Carlos. Regulating Private Military Companies: States and the Expanding Business of Commercial Security Provision, in L. Assassi, D. Wigan and K. van der Pijl (eds). Global Regulation. Managing Crises After the Imperial Turn. Houndmills / New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004, p. 206.
^ Jonathan Finer Security Contractors in Iraq Under Scrutiny after Shootings Washington Post September 10, 2005.(a backup site)
^ PMCs may be useful in combatting genocides and slaughters in situations where the UN is unwilling or unable to intervene.
- Privatising Protection by David Shearer in The World Today (RIIA) Published by Chatam House
- Peacekeepers, Inc. by P.W. Singer in the Policy Review Published by the Hoover Institution
  - Peacekeepers, Inc. by P.W. Singer in the Policy Review June 2003 this copy available at the The Brookings Institution
- Dogs of Peace by Eric Pape and Michael Meyer in Newsweek International
^ Dogs of war into doves of peace BBC 11 November 2002
^ The Mercenaries in Time Magazine October 25, 1968
^ Tom Cooper Civil War in Nigeria (Biafra), 1967-1970 November 13, 2003. Second paragraph.
^ How oil brought the dogs of war back to Malabo The Independent September 2 2004
^ Allan Laing "'Scratcher' and the battle for Guinea" Glasgow Herald 26 August 2004
^ CNN MALABO, Equatorial Guinea (Reuters) Nick du Toit said he was introduced to Thatcher in South Africa last year by Simon Mann, 25 August 2004:
^ BBC Mann guilty of purchasing weapons 27 August 2004
^ BBC Q&A: Equatorial Guinea coup plot 13 January, 2005
^ BBC Zimbabwe jails UK 'coup plotter' 10 September, 2004
^ Healy, Mark; New Kingdom Egypt; ISBN 185532-208-0; Page ??
^ Project Gutenberg e-text of The White Company by Arthur Conan Doyle
^ Owain Lawgoch (English:Owain of the Red Hand, French:Yvain de Galles)
^ Patrick Sarsfield Wild Geese Heritage Museum and Library

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