Bohdan Khmelnytsky

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Bohdan Khmelnytsky
Hetman of Ukraine
In office January 30, 1648 – August 6, 1657
Preceded by	Dmytro Hunia
Succeeded by	Ivan Vyhovsky
Born	1595 Subotiv, near Chyhyryn, Ukraine
Died	August 6, 1657 Chyhyryn, Ukraine
Spouse	Hanna Somkivna, Motrona Czaplińska, Hanna Zolotarenko,
Religion	Greek Orthodox
Signature

Bohdan Zynovii Mykhailovych Khmel'nyts'kyi (Ukrainian: Богдан Зиновій Михайлович Хмельницький, commonly transliterated as Khmelnytsky; known in Polish as Bohdan Zenobi Chmielnicki; in Russian as Богда́н Хмельни́цкий, translit. Bogdan Khmelnitsky) (born ca. 1595 — died August 6, 1657) was a hetman of the Zaporozhian Cossack Hetmanate of Ukraine. He led the uprising against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth magnates (1648 – 1654) with the goal of creating an independent Cossack state. In 1654 he concluded the Treaty of Pereyaslav with the Tsardom of Russia, which led to the eventual loss of Ukrainian independence first in the Russian Empire and later in the Soviet Union.

Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life 1.2 Service with the Cossacks 1.3 The Czapliński Affair 1.4 The Uprising 1.4.1 Initial successes 1.4.2 Establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate 1.5 Complications 1.6 Union with Muscovy 1.7 Final years 2 Khmelnytsky remembered 2.1 Khmelnytsky in Ukrainian history 2.2 Khmelnytsky in Polish history 2.3 Khmelnytsky in Russian and Soviet history 2.4 Khmelnytsky in Jewish history 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading 6 External links

[edit] Biography

[edit] Early life

Although there is no definite proof of the date of his birth, it has been suggested by Ukrainian historian Mykhaylo Maksymovych that his date of birth was likely 27 December 1595 (St. Theodurus day). As it was the custom in the Orthodox Church, he was baptised with one of his middle names - Theodor, transformed into Ukrainian as Bohdan.

Khmelnytsky was probably^[1] born in the village of Subotiv 49°7′N 32°44′E, near Chyhyryn in Ukraine at the estate of his father Mykhailo Khmelnytsky. Even though his father, Mykhailo Khmelnytsky, a courtier of Great Crown Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski, was of noble birth himself, and belonged to the Massalski and the Abdank noble clans (szlachta) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, there was and is still controversy as to whether Bohdan belonged to the szlachta himself.^[2] This however didn't prevent Khmelnytsky from considering himself a noble and his father's status as a deputy Starosta (elder) of Chyhyryn helped him to be considered as such by others. Later on, however, during the Uprising he would stress his mother's Cossack roots and his father's exploits with the Cossacks of the Sich.

There is also no concrete evidence in regards to Khmelnytsky's early education. Several historians believe he received his elementary schooling from a church clerk until he was sent to one of Kyiv's Orthodox fraternity schools. He continued his education in Polish at a Jesuit college, possibly in Jaroslaw, but more likely in Lviv, in the school founded by hetman Żółkiewski. He completed his schooling by 1620 and acquired a broad knowledge of world history and learned Polish and Latin. Later in addition to these languages he acquired a knowledge of Turkish, Tatar, and French languages. Unlike many of the other Jesuit students, he did not embrace Roman Catholicism but remained Greek Orthodox.

[edit] Service with the Cossacks

Upon completion of his studies in 1617, Bohdan entered into service with the Cossacks. As early as 1619 he was sent along with his father to Moldavia, as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth entered into war with the Ottoman Empire. His first military engagement was a tragic one. During the battle of Cecora (Ţuţora) on 17 September 1620, his father was killed, and young Khmelnytsky among many others, including future hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski, was captured by the Turks. He spent the next two years in captivity in Constantinople, as a prisoner of a Turkish Pasha.^[3]

While there is no concrete evidence as to how he returned to Ukraine, most historians believe he either escaped or his ransom was paid. Sources vary as to by whom - his mother, friends, the Polish king - but perhaps by Krzysztof Zbaraski, ambassador of the Rzeczpospolita to the Ottomans, who in 1622 paid 30,000 tlars in ransom for all POW captured at battle of Cecora. Upon return to Subotiv, Khmelnytsky took over the running of his father's estate and became a registered Cossack in the Chyhyryn Regiment. In the meantime, his widowed mother married again, to Belarusian noble Vasyl Stavetsky, and moved to his estate, leaving Bohdan in charge of Subotiv. In a year she had another son, Hryhoriy, who curiously enough later preferred to take his mother's name and was known as Hryhoriy Khmelnytsky. For a short time he also served as a koniuszy to hetman Mikołaj Potocki, but relatively quickly they parted their ways after a personal conflict. Bohdan Khmelnytsky later married Hanna Somkivna, a daughter of a rich Pereyaslavl Cossack and they settled in Subotiv. By the second half of the 1620s they already had three daughters: Stepanida, Olena and Kateryna. His first son Tymish (Tymofiy) was born in 1632, and another son Yuriy was born in 1640.

During this time Bohdan Khmelnytsky was running his estate and advanced in his service in the Regiment. He first became a sotnyk and later advanced to the rank of a regiment scribe. He certainly had significant negotiation skills and commanded respect of his fellow Cossacks as on 30 August 1637 he was included in a delegation to Warsaw to plead the Cossacks' case before the Polish King Władysław IV. Serving in the army of a Polish magnate and great commander, hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski, he participated in a rather successful campaign as the Commonwealth army, part of which was Bohdan's regiment, scored a decisive victory over the Tatars in 1644. During this time, as some archival documents show, he also had a meeting in Warsaw with the French ambassador Count De Bregie, during which he discussed the possibility of Cossack participation in war in France. Sources vary as to whether in April of 1645 he traveled to France (to Fontainebleau) to discuss further details of Cossack service in France; this claim is supported by Ukrainian historiography but disputed by Polish scholarship.^[4] In October 1644 around two thousand Cossacks went to France by sea via Gdansk and Calais, where they participated in the siege and capture of Dunkerque. However, no records show that Bohdan Khmelnytsky was among them.

[edit] The Czapliński Affair

In the meantime another trouble was brewing at home. Upon the death of magnate Stanisław Koncepolski, advocate of fair treatment of Cossacks, his successor Aleksander redrew the maps of his possessions and laid claim to Khmelnytsky's estate, which he claimed was his. In his attempt to find protection from the powerful magnate Khmelnytsky wrote numerous appeals and letters to different representatives of the Polish crown - but to no avail. At the end of 1645 the Chyhyryn starost (elder) Daniel Czapliński officially received authority from Koniecpolski to seize the Subotiv estate. In summer of 1646 Khmelnytsky, using his favorable standing at the Polish court, arranged an audience with King Władysław IV to plead his case. Władysław, who wanted Cossacks on his side in the wars he planned, gave him a royal charter, which protected his rights to the estate. However, such was the structure of the Commonwealth at that time, and the lawlessness of its eastern realms, that even the King was not able to avert the confrontation with the local magnates. In the beginning of 1647 Daniel Czapliński openly started to harass Khmelnytsky in an attempt to force him off the land. On two occasions Subotiv was raided: considerable property damage was done and Khmelnytsky's son Yuriy was badly beaten. Finally in April 1647, Czapliński completely forced Khmelnytsky off the land and made him move with his large family to a relative's house in Chyhyryn.

In May of 1647 Khmelnytsky arranged a second audience with the King to plead his case, but found the King unwilling to go into an open confrontation with a powerful magnate. In addition to the loss of the estate, his first wife Hanna died, leaving him alone with the children. While he promptly remarried to Motrona, his second wife, he was still unsuccessful in all of his attempts to find justice in regards to his estate. During this time, he met several higher Polish officials to discuss the Cossacks' issue of the war with the Tatars and used this occasion again to plead his case with Czapliński, still unsuccessfully.

When he found no support from the Polish officials, he found it in his Cossack friends and subordinates. The case of a Cossack being unfairly treated by the Poles found a lot of support not only in his Chyhyryn regiment, but also in throughout the Sich. All through the autumn of 1647 Khmelnytsky traveled from one regiment to another, and had numerous consultations with Cossack leaders throughout Ukraine. His activity raised suspicion among the Polish authorities already used to Cossack revolts and he was promptly arrested. Koniecpolski even issued an order for his execution but a Chyhyryn Cossack polkovnyk that held Khmelnytsky was persuaded to release him. Not willing to tempt his fate again, Bohdan Khmelnytsky with a group of his supporters headed for the Zaporozhian Sich.

[edit] The Uprising

Main article: Khmelnytsky Uprising

While it might appear that the Czapliński Affair caused the Uprising, it was only an impetus that brought a successful and talented Cossack to the forefront of popular discontent among the people of Ukraine. While the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth remained a union of two nations: of Poland and Lithuania, a sizeable population of Orthodox Ruthenians remained ignored. That left them oppressed by the Polish magnates and the Jewish traders, who often ran their estates for them. The advent of the Counter-Reformation further worsened the relationship between the Orthodox and Catholic churches. Many of the Orthodox Ukrainians saw the Union of Brest as a threat to their Orthodox faith, and coupled with the frequent abuse of the Orthodox clergy this added the religious dimension to the conflict. This could have been one of the many other frequent Cossack revolts that had been put down by the authorities, but the stature, the skill and the respect of the seasoned 50-year-old negotiator and warrior Khmelnytsky made all the difference.

[edit] Initial successes

At the end of the year Khmelnytsky finally made his way to the south, to the estuary of the Dnieper river. On 25 January 1648 his small (300–500-man) detachment, with the help of registered Cossacks who went to his side, disarmed the small Polish detachment guarding the area and took over the Zaporozhian Sich - much to the jubilation of many of the Cossacks. An attempt to retake the Sich by the Poles was decisively fought off as more registered Cossacks joined his forces. At the end of January 1648 a Cossack Rada was called and Khmelnytsky was unanimously elected a hetman. A feverish activity followed. Cossacks were sent with hetman's letters to many regions of Ukraine calling on Cossacks and Orthodox peasants to join the rebellion, the defence of Khortytsia was improved, arrangements were made to acquire and make weapons and anmunition, and emissaries were sent to the Khan of Crimea. İslâm III Giray.

Initially Polish authorities took the news of Khmelnytsky's arrival to the Sich and of talks about the rebellion quite lightly. The two sides exchanged lists of demands: the Poles asked for Cossacks to surrender the mutinous leader and disband, while Khmelnytsky and the Rada demanded that the Commonwealth restore the Cossacks' ancient rights, stop the advance of the Greek Catholic Church, the right to appoint Orthodox leaders of the Sich and of the Registered Cossack regiments, and to remove the Commonwealth troops from Ukraine.^[5] These demands of Khmelnytsky were taken as an affront by the Polish magnates and an army headed by Stefan Potocki moved in the direction of the Sich. Had the Cossacks stayed at Khortytsia they might have been defeated like numerous other rebellions - but this time instead of waiting for the Poles, Khmelnytsky marched against them. The two armies met on 16 May 1648 at Zhovti Vody, where aided by the Tatars of Tugay Bey the Cossacks inflicted their first crushing defeat on the Commonwealth, repeated soon after, with the same success, at the Battle of Korsuń on 26 May 1648. What made these Cossack successess different was the diplomatic and military skill of Khmelnytsky: under his leadership, the Cossack army moved to battle positions following his plans, Cossacks were proactive and decisive in their maneuver and attacks, and most importantly, he not only managed to persuade large contingents of registered Cossacks to switch to his side, but also got the support of the Crimean Khan - his crucial ally for the many battles to come.

[edit] Establishment of the Cossack Hetmanate

By Christmas of 1648 Khmelnytsky made a triumphant entry into Kyiv, where he was hailed as "the Moses, savior, redeemer, and liberator of the people from Polish captivity ... the illustrious ruler of Rus." In February 1649, during negotiations in Pereiaslav with a Polish delegation headed by senator Adam Kysil, Khmelnytsky declared that he was "the sole autocrat of Rus" and that he had "enough power in Ukraine, Podilia, and Volhynia ... in his land and principality stretching as far as Lviv, Chełm, and Halych."^[6] It became clear to the Polish envoys that Khmelnytsky had positioned himself no more as a leader of the Zaporozhian Cossacks but of Ukraine and stated his claims to the heritage of the Rus. A Vilnius panegyric in Khmelnytsky's honor (1650–1651) explained it this way: "While in Poland it is King Jan II Casimir Vasa, in Rus it is Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky."^[7]

After the period of initial military successes a state-building process began. His leadership was demonstrated in all areas of state-building: in the military, administration, finance, economics, and culture. With political acumen he made the Zaporozhian Host under the leadership of its hetman the supreme power in the new Ukrainian state, and unified all the spheres of Ukrainian society under his authority. Khmelnytsky built a new government system and developed military and civilian administration.

During this time a new generation of statesmen and military leaders came to the forefront: Ivan Vyhovsky, Pavlo Teteria, Danylo Nechai and Ivan Nechai, Ivan Bohun, Hryhoriy Hulyanytsky. Of Cossack polkovnyks, officers, and military commanders, a new elite within the Cossack Hetman state was born. Throughout the years, this elite preserved and maintained the autonomy of the Hetmanate in the face of Muscovy's attempt to curb it, but was instrumental in the onset of the period of Ruin that followed and eventually destroyed most of the achievements of the Khmelnytsky era.

[edit] Complications

Khmelnytsky's initial successes were followed by a series of setbacks as neither Khmelnytsky nor the Commonwealth had had enough strength to stabilize the situation or to inflict a defeat on the enemy. What followed was the period of intermittent warfare and several peace treaties, which neither side put much faith in or cared to abide by. From the spring of 1649 on, the situation turned for worse for the Cossacks as the frequency of Polish attacks increased and they were becoming more and more successful. Despite his capture of the Polish king John II Casimir at the battle of Zbarazh, Khmelnytsky was forced to release the king as his allies, the Tatars betrayed him. That resulted in an unfavourable for Cossacks Treaty of Zboriv on August 18, 1649. This was followed by another defeat at the battle of Berestechko on June 18, 1651, where Tatars betrayed him again and even held the hetman captive. That resulted not only in crushing defeat and a high number of casualties (estimated to be around 30,000 Cossacks), but also led to another unfavourable treaty of Bila Tserkva. That treaty was violated again and in the years that followed the two sides were almost in the perpetual state of warfare. In this situation the Crimean Tatars played a decisive role — not allowing either of the side to score a decisive victory or to prevail over the enemy. It was in their interests to keep both Ukraine and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from getting too strong and becoming a decisive power in the region.^[8]

Under the circumstances, Khmelnytsky started looking for another foreign ally. Even though the Cossacks established their own de-facto independence from Poland, the new state needed legitimacy that was common and essential in 17 century Europe, and this legitimacy could be provided by a foreign monarch. In search of protectorate Khmelnytsky approached the Ottoman sultan in 1651 and formal embassies were exchanged. The Turks offered vassalship similar to their other arrangements with contemporary Crimea, Moldavia and Walachia. However, the idea of a union with the Muslim monarch didn't rest well with the general populace and the Cossacks from whom Khmelnytsky drew his support.

The other possible ally was Orthodox Muscovy. They, however, remained quite cautious and stayed away from the hostilities in Ukraine. In spite of numerous envoys and calls for help from Khmelnytsky in the name of the shared Orthodox faith, the tsar preferred to wait until the threat of a Cossack-Ottoman union in 1653 finally forced him to action.^[8] The idea that the tsar might be favourable to taking Ukraine under his hand was communicated to the hetman and the diplomatic activity intensified.

[edit] Union with Muscovy

Main article: Treaty of Pereyaslav

After a series on negotiations, it was agreed that Ukraine would be placed under tsar's overlordship. To finalize the treaty, an embassy led by boyar Vasili Buturlin arrived in the town of Pereyaslav, where on January 18, 1653 the Cossack Rada was called and the treaty concluded. There is still no unanimity among historians as to the true intentions of both Muscovy and Khmelnytsky in signing this agreement. For Moscow's tsar Alexei Mikhailovich the treaty offered legitimacy over claims to the territory of Rus and strengthened his influence in the region. For Khmelnytsky the treaty of Pereyaslav offered first and foremost a legitimate monarch's protection and support from a friendly Orthodox power. There have been a number of conflicting opinions as to what kind of union Khmelnytsky had in mind, whether it was to be a military union, a suzerainty or a complete incorporation of Ukraine into the Tsardom of Russia.^[9]

That both sides had somewhat different idea of the treaty and the union, can be exemplified by an incident during the oath of allegiance to the Moscow's tsar: the treaty was almost broken when the Moscow's envoy refused to reciprocate with the oath to his subjects as it was the custom with the Polish king. At one point Khmelnytsky even stormed out of the church and threatened to cancel the entire treaty. It was only after some consideration that this demand on the part of the Cossacks was rescinded and the treaty stayed. Both sides, however, had different ends in mind and in the case of Ukraine as whole, whatever liberties were allowed to Khmelnytsky due to his stature, they were denied to his successors. That in the end led to the eventual complete incorporation of Ukraine into the Tsardom of Russia and later into the Russian Empire.

[edit] Final years

As a result of the Treaty of Pereyaslav the geopolitical map of the region had changed — a new player, Muscovite Russia entered the scene and the former Cossack allies the Tatars went to the Polish side. That intensified the conflict, as the Tatars were unrestrained anymore in their warfare against Khmelnytsky. As a result of Tatar raids whole areas of Ukraine became depopulated. Cossacks aided by the tsar's army took revenge on Polish possessions in Belarus and in the spring of 1654 drove them from much of the country. To complicate the situation even further, another power entered the scene — Sweden. They were the old adversaries of both Poland and Muscovy and at the initial stages they concentrated most of their attacks against the Commonwealth. That put Khmelnytsky into a delicate situation in regards to the tsar, as he had been negotiating with the Swedes for some time coordinating their attacks on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1656 with the Commonwealth on the brink of collapse, the ruler of Transilvania George II Rákóczi also joined in and under blows from all sides the Commonwealth only miraculously survived.

No more satisfied with their spoils in Poland and Lithuania the Swedes turned against their old enemy — Muscovy, which complicated matters even further for Khmelnytsky, as his ally was now fighting his overlord. In addition to diplomatic tensions between the tsar and Khmelnytsky a number of other disagreements between the two surfaced, notably in regards to tsarist officials' interference in the financial affairs of the Hetmanate and in the newly liberated Belarus. One thing that infuriated the hetman the most was the separate treaty the Moscow tsar concluded with the Poles in Vilnius in 1656. Hetman's emissaries were not even allowed to attend the negotiations — that prompted Khmelnytsky to write an irate letter to the tsar accusing him of breaking the terms of the Pereyaslav agreement. The other interesting point in the letter was that in his anger Khmelnytsky compared Swedes to the tsar, claiming that the former were more honourable and trustworthy than the latter.^[8]

In addition to diplomatic tensions with Muscovy the Cossack army with their Transilvanian allies in Poland suffered a number of setbacks and as a result Khmelnytsky even had to deal with the Cossack revolt at home. Troubling news also came from Crimea as Tatars in alliance with Poland were preparing for a new invasion into Ukraine. Even being already ill Khmelnytsky continued to conduct diplomatic activity, at one point even receiving the tsar's envoys in his bed.^[3] On July 22 he suffered cerebral hemorrhage, became paralyzed and in on July 27, 1654 at 5 a.m. he died. His funeral was conducted on August 23 and his body was transported from his capital Chyhyryn to his estate at Subotiv for burial in his ancestral church. In 1664 a Polish noble Stefan Czarniecki captured Subotiv and ordered the bodies of hetman and his son Tymish to be exhumed and desecrated.^[10]

[edit] Khmelnytsky remembered

It is hard to overestimate Khmelnytsky's contribution and role in the history of Eastern Europe. He did not only shaped the future of Ukraine but significantly changed the balance of powers in Eastern Europe. Like with any other prominent personality his role in the events and his actions were viewed differently by his contemporaries and even now different people have sometimes quite opposing views on his legacy.

[edit] Khmelnytsky in Ukrainian history

In Ukraine Khmelnytsky is generally regarded as a national hero and a father of a nation. A city and a region of the country bear his name. His image is prominently displayed on Ukrainian banknotes and his monument in the centre of Kyiv is the focal point of the Ukrainian capital. There have also been several issues of the Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky — one of the highest decorations in Ukraine and in the former Soviet Union. With all this positive appreciation of his legacy, even in Ukraine it is far from being unanimous. He is mostly criticised for his union with Russia, which in the view of some, proved to be disastrous for the future of the country. This particular view, among others, was expessed by a prominent Ukrainian poet Taras Shevchenko, who was one of Khmelnytsky's very vocal and harsh critics.^[11] On the balance, the view of his legacy in present-day Ukraine is more positive than negative, even with the critics admitting that the union with Russia was dictated by necessity and an attempt to survive in those difficult times.

[edit] Khmelnytsky in Polish history

Until recently Khmelnytsky's role in the history of Poland was viewed mostly in the negative light. The rebellion of 1648 proved to be the end of the Golden Age of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the beginning of its demise. Even though it would survive the rebellion and the period of Deluge that followed, within a hundred years it will be no more — its remains would be divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria. Many blamed Khmelnytsky for the decline of the Commonwealth. Some offered a rather simplified role of Khmelnytsky in the events: for example prominent Polish writer Henryk Sienkiewicz in his novel "With Fire and Sword" (Polish: Ogniem i mieczem) offered a view that Khmelnytsky was mostly motivated by his personal enimosity and stirred up a rebellion to avenge his personal grudges. This book was written with a clearly stated intent of raising the national spirit in partitioned Poland, and shows the story of Khmelnytsky and the Cossacks from the point of view of the Polish nobles (szlachta), thus glorifying the Polish side while vilifying the rebels. This view is contrasted by a far more comprehensive appreciation of Khmelnytsky's legacy by Polish historians, like Ludwik Kubala, who in his works compared him with Oliver Cromwell.^[12] A more balanced appreciation prevails — that the fundamental ills of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth resulted in the rebellion that Khmelnytsky led. The movie "With Fire and Sword" (1999) based on Henryk Synkewisz's novel also offered a more balanced, contemporary view on the Ukrainian hetman in Poland.

[edit] Khmelnytsky in Russian and Soviet history

In their assessment of Khmelnytsky's legacy the official Russian historiography stressed the fact that Khmelnytsky entered into union with Moscow's tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with an expressed desire to "re-unify" Ukraine with Russia. This view corresponded with the official theory of Moscow being an heir of the Kievan Rus and thus a gatherer of its former territories. In this light Khmelnytsky was viewed as a national hero of Russia for bringing Ukraine into the "eternal union" of all Russias — Great, Little and White Russia. As such, he was much respected and venerated in the tsarist Russia, to the extent that his stature was presented as a model for all Ukrainians to follow — to aspire for closer ties with Great Russia. This view expressed itself in a monument commissioned by a Russian nationalist Mikhail Yuzefovich, which would be installed in the centre of Kiev.^[13][14] The original variant of the monument created by sculptor Mikeshin appeared too xenophobic even for the Russian authorities, as it was to depict a vanquished Pole, Jew and a Catholic priest under the hoofs of the horse. The more moderate version prevailed but the inscription on the monument read "To Bogdan Khmelnitsky from one and indivisible Russia."^[15] The view of Khmelnytsky as a prominent, positive figure in the Russian history is further immortalized in sculptor Mikeshin's Monument to the Millennium of Russia in Novgorod, where Khmelnytsky is also one of Russia's prominent figures.^[16]

Soviet historiography followed in many ways the imperial Russian theory of "re-unification" adding the class struggle dimension to the depiction of the events. Thus, Khmelnytsky was not only praised for "re-unifying" Ukraine with Russia, but also for organizing the class struggle of oppressed Ukrainian peasants against Polish and Jewish exploiters.

[edit] Khmelnytsky in Jewish history

Khmelnytsky told the people that the Poles had sold them as slaves "into the hands of the accursed Jews." With this as their battle-cry, the Cossacks killed a large number of Jews during the years 1648-9. The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes deaths from diseases and Tatar imprisonment. For this reason, in Jewish historical memory Khmelnytsky remained a controversial figure. Characteristically, Sholem Asch wrote about Khmelnytsky's Cossack war in his book Al Kiddush Hashem: A Novel of 1648 which describes the massacres of the Jews in horrific detail. This tragedy was etched in Jewish collective memory as the greatest calamity since the days of Simon bar Kokhba and led the way to the Shabtai Zvi movement which started not long afterwards.

[edit] See also

• Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky, a military decoration in Soviet Union and Ukraine
• Bogdan Khmelnitsky Bridge in Moscow
• With Fire and Sword

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

• Orest Subtelny. Ukraine. A history. University of Toronto press. 1994. ISBN 0-8020-0591-0.
• V. A. Smoliy, V. S. Stepankov. Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Sotsialno-politychnyi portret. Second Edition. Lebid, Kyiv. 1995. ISBN 5-325-00721-1.

[edit] External links

• Cossack State after 1649 (map)
• Biography of Bohdan Khmelnytsky

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