Republican Kambojas
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There are several ancient literary and inscriptional references which testify that the ancient Kambojas were a republican people.
References in Sanskrit and Pali literature attest terms like e Gana, Samgha, Shreni and other similar bodies labeled as Puga, Vrata, Goshata etc. The Gana, Samgha and the Shrenis were the most important of these terms, originally meant multitude but in later times, they applied to republican type of polity.
[edit] Term Gana in Vedic texts
The Gana as corporate body had originated in Vedic times. Dr V. M. Apte refers to occurrence of Gana, Ganapati etc in Vedic literature which in later period were distinctly republican terms.
In Rigveda, the leader of a Gana has the title of Rajan. Gana of Vedic literature probably refer to oligarchy where power was vested in a council of elders, each member of which was entitled to call him a Rajan and had a right to elect chief of the State who was also called Raja. The members of Gana were treated as rulers and all carried a title of Raja.
Dr R. S. Sharma opines that the Vedic Ganas were self acting armed organisations, every member of which bore arms and were the fore-runners of Ayudhajivi Samghas of Panini and Varta.shastr.opajivi Samghas of Kautiliya. The Vedic Gana was primarily a tribal republic.
[edit] Term Gana in Brahmanical literature
The Gana of Mahabharata refers to whole body politic or entire Political Community (i.e. the Parliament). The governing body was a distinct body inside the Gana [1].
[edit] Term Gana means Republic or Democracy
The classical terms for republic are Gana and Samgha. The older scholars like William Monier [2] translated the word Gana as a tribe which was accepted by earlier scholars like Dr Fleet and Dr R. G. Bhandarkar who consequently called the Ganas of Malavas, Ksudrakas and Yaudheyas as 'tribal states'. But this translation has since then fallen into disuse. The later community of scholars has translated the Ganas in the meaning of 'republics' or 'democracies' [3] [4] [5].
[edit] Term Samgha of Grammarians, Arthashastra and Budhist texts
Panini refers to Samgha and applies it in the same sense as Gana.
Katyayana in his Vartika takes Samgha as a form of government where sovereignty vested in many as distinct from Ekaraja (monarchy) where it vested in one.
Kasika also uses the term Samgha in the sense of republic. Kautiliya applies term Samgha and Shreni to republican people.
Buddhist texts refer to religious Samghas as a perfect copy of political model, but more than the political Samgha, equality and universal brotherhood was the cornerstone of religious Samghas. On the other hand, in the political Samghas, the political power rested in the hands of the founder Kshatriya clans only. There were other castes in the political Samgha, but they did not share any political power, though they owed allegiance to the Janapada and its ruling Kshatriyas.
[edit] Terms Gana and Samgha: Synonymous with Republic
In ancient literature Gana and Samgha have been used as synonymous terms for republic.
[edit] Panini Evidence
Panini in his Ashtadhyayi, speaks of the political Samgha technically known as Gana.
- Samgh-odghau Gana-prashamsayoh.............[6].
Panini writes Yaudheyas as a Samgha [7] but Yaudheyas in their coins refer to themselves as Gana:
(i) Yaudheya -Gana.sya Jaya.......................
(ii) Yaudheya Ganah.purskrittasya.............
[edit] Kasika Evidence
Kasika terms Ayudhajivi tribes like Kshudrakas, Malavas as Samgha[8].
But their own coins and several inscriptions address them as a Gana[9] [10].
The above illustrations prove that ancient terms Gana and Samgha were identical in meaning and stood for a republic.
[edit] Kambojas as Republican People in Ancient Sources
[edit] Mahabharata evidence about Kamboja Ganas and Shrenis
Mahabharata refers to numerous Ganas of the Kambojas (Kambojana.n cha ye Ganah) fighting on the side of Kauravas [11].
- e.g: "..and numerous Ganas of the Kambojas who are regarded as very brave and accomplished warriors in the battle-field (sangrame shura sammatah), and whom Karna had fought with and vanquished in former times..."[12].
Mahabharata also knows of Shrenis. The Shreni also possessed political significance like the Gana as is shown by the expression Kshatriya-Shrenis i.e Corporations of warriors found in Arthashastra for a class of Varta-shastr.opajivin Samghas of the Kamboja and Surashtra etc [13].
Like the Kamboja Ganas, Mahabharata also refers to numerous Shrenis fighting on the side of Duryodhana[14].
Obviously, the Shrenis here, refer to the Kshatriya Shrenis of the Kambojas among others, fighting on Kauravas' behalf.
The Gana and Shrenis at the time of Mahabharata appear to be fully evolved political corporate bodies or democratic republican institutions.
[edit] Characteristics of Epic Ganas
The Shantiparva section of the Mahabharata [15] gives a detailed lecture on Ganas or republics and lists the essentials for Ganas to succeed politically and militarily. Time and again, the stress is on unity, confederacy, equality, descipline, mutual cooperation, mutual subordination, mutual-respect and high sense of justice. These characteristics are stated to be a vital ingredients of success for the Ganas, where as greed and jealousy are the main provoking causes leading to waste, decay and mutual destruction of them [16].
Following extracts from Shantiparva of Mahabharata are notable for their heavy stress on UNITY or CONFEDERACY [17].
Epic Ganas are known to have formed confederations [18].
The success of the Ganas lied in their confederacy, since the confederated Ganas were invincible by prowess or cleverness or by temptations or by beauty [19].
The confederated ganas can only be overturned by the enemy through the policy of division and subsidy.
The successful Ganas have been noted as very wealthy, heroic, well-versed in the shastras (learning) and accomplished in the art of weaponry [20].
When we examine the Kamboja Ganas in the light of above characteristics of successful Ganas, so heavily stressed upon in the Mahabharata, we find that all these saliant characteristics of the successful Ganas are beautifully reflected in the Kamboja Ganas also [21].
e.g: "Those other car-warriors with golden standards, O king, whom you see, and who, like the wild elephants are difficult of being resisted, they are called the Kambojas. They are 'brave', a 'learned people' and are 'firmly devoted to the science of weapons'. 'Desiring one another's welfare', they are all 'highly united' and 'mutually cooperative'. They constitute a full Akshauhini of 'wrathful warriors' .
The above characteristics of the martial Ganas of the Kambojas plentifully establish the fact that the Kambojas of Mahabharata were a very well known republican people.
Besides Kambojan Ganas, Mahabharata also refer to the Ganas of Daserkas and the league of the Kukuras-Andhakas-Vrishinis.
[edit] Aitareya Brahamana evidence on Viraja (kingless) Kambojas
Aitareya Brahmana describes vairajya as a national constitution prevailing among the Udichyas or the nations of the north. Here, whole Janapada took the consecration of rulership which means it was a real democratic constitution. The geographical location is stated as lying in the trans-Himalaya region [22].
- e.g: " Thereafter, the god Indra took consecration (abhisheka) from vishvadevas for vairajya type rulership in the northern quarter. Therefore, the Janapadas located in the north beyond the Himalaya, like the Uttara Kuru, Uttara Madra etc take the consecration for rulership and are therefore, known as viraja (kingless)[23].
The Uttara Kuru and Uttara Madra from north quarter are cited in the Brahmana as an illustration of Janapadas observing the vairajya constitution. Since the Kambojas were close neighbors to the Uttara Kurus as well as the Uttara Madras in the north division in trans-Himalayan territory, it can therefore, be fairly assumed that the same form of national constitution also prevailed amongst the northern trans-Himalayan Kamboja i.e Parama Kamboja country.
[edit] Sumerian mythology and republican Kambojas
The Sumerian myth of Enmerker and the Lord of Aratta contains an old reference to Aratta people/country of late Vedic period. The region is stated to be located beyond Zagros towards eastern Iran and is stated to be the source of lapis lazuli. Obviously, this refers to Badakshan which, since remote antiquity has been the only known source of lapis lazuli. The Aratta people are first mentioned in Baudhayana Shrautasutra [24] and Bhaudhayana Dharamasutra [25]. They belong to north-west since they are bracketed with the Gandharas. Hence they are close neighbors of Gandharas. They are stated to be despised people. Scholars say that Aratta is a popular (prakrit) form of Vedic "A-rashtra" -- which means without government. This compares to Avestic "A-sara" -- also meaning without head/government--thus the Vedic Aratta probably alludes to A-rashtra i.e. kingless or republican people/territory. Geographically, this Vedic Aratta is located at the source of river Rasa in Pamir.
The above text is based on Early Eastern Iran and the Atharvaveda [26]. Investigators like Dr. Koenraad Elst, Col Cunningham, Dr Buddha Parkash etc also regard Aratta as Prkritic form of Vedic A-rashtra or Arashtraka meaning kingless or stateless [27].
Badakshan, according to most noted scholarship, formed western parts of ancient Kamboja [1]. It lied in trans-Himalaya (trans-Hindukush) region, which in Aitareya Brahmana (VIII.14) is stated to be the land of the republican people like Uttara Kurus, Uttara Madras etc. Based on above scenario, the Sumerian/Vedic Aratta can fairly be taken to be a popular (prakrit) form of Vedic A-rashtra and therefore, it probably alludes to the kingless/republican Kambojas of trans-Himalayan (parena himvantan) region.
[edit] Puranic evidence on Kamboja Ganas
The reference to military Ganas or Corporations of the Kambojas and other tribes from the north-west also appears in numerous Puranic literature[28]
These five hordes (ganah-panca or panca-ganah) comprsing the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas etc were in fact, the Ayudhajivi corporations of these warlike tribes, organised into military bodies, like the "Ganas", "Shrenis", "Pugas" or "Vratas", and were apparently living by warfare or the profession of arms. These military hordes did not represent the entire mass of their tribes, but were only some military corporations coming from these borderland nations into India either as invading hordes or else to offer their military services as Ayudhajivis to the Indo-Aryans who solicited them.
[edit] Paninian Kambojas: a Republican people?
Panini includes the Kambojas among the fifteen most powerful Kshatriya monarchies flourishing during his times. But it appears that governing constitution of the Kambojas was republican (king consul) during Paninian era.
Panini gives a rule for the derivative to denote the king of the Kambojas. The rule for Kambojas is different from the rest of fourteen Kshatriya monarchies in the list (sutra IV.1.168-75). On the surface, this would indicate that Panini is referring to a monarchy, but the special rule and exceptional form the derivation raises doubt as to whether the raja of the Kambojas was a king or a consul [29].
The Paninian Kambojas probably formed raja.shabd.opajivin type Samghas, a constitutional term which appears in Kautiliya's Arthashastra [30] later in fourth century BCE. The applellation 'Raja' in case of Paninian Kambojas, to all probability, was used for the army Chiefs/Generals of the Confederation of the Kambojas.
Moreover, the Ashvayana and the Asvhakayana sections of the Kambojas are also often considered as martial republics by the scholars.
Therefore, it is fair to conclude that the Paninian Kambojas had probably followed the raja.shad.opajivin (king consul) republican constitution.
[edit] Kamboja Samghas/Shrenis in Kautiliya's Arthashastra
Panini's raja-shad.opajivin Kambojas switched to varta-shastr.opajivin type constitution before the times of Kautiliya at which time, it certainly did not admit of even a titular king [31].
Book XI of Kautiliya's Arthashastra attests the Samghas of the Kambojas, Surashtras, Lichchavis, Vrijis, Kurus, Madras, Panchalas etc as important nations.
It further attests Kshatriya-Shrenis (corporations of warriors) of the Kambojas, Surashtras etc and states that, besides warfare, the Kambojas also lived by agriculture, trade and cattle-culture [32].
- e.g: "The Corporations of warriors (Kshattriya. Sreni of) Kambhoja and Surashtra, and other countries live by agriculture, trade and wielding weapons".
- "The Corporations of Lichchhivika, Vrijika, Mallaka, Mudraka, Kukura, Kuru, Panchala and others live by the title of a Raja". [33]
Interprettation:
- Expression Shastr.opajivin of Kautiliya implies living by 'wielding weapons or by warfare'.
- Expression Varta.opajivin implies living by 'agriculture, trade and industry'.
Thus the composite expression varta.shastr.opajivini used by Kautiliya for the Kambojas and Surashtras signifies that, besides living by warfare (as Shastr.opajivis), the Kamboja and Surashtra republics were also living by agriculture, trade and industry (Varta.opajivis).
The 'Raja.shabd.opajivini' Samghas of the Arthashastra on the otherhand, bore the title of raja or king.
Since Kautiliya contrasts the Varta.shastr.opajivini Samghas with the Raja.shabd.opajivini Sanmhas, this implies that the former had no provision even for title of raja, and did not allow it
In other words, the 'Raja.shabd.opajivin' Samghas observed a king-consul constitution and conversely, the 'Vata-shastr.opajivins' Samghas did not have a king consul...i.e they were kingless or truly democratic nations.
It is notable that Kautiliya's Arthashastra attests the term Shreni or 'Kshatriya-Shrenis' i.e. 'Corporations of warriors' and applies this republican term to Kamboja and Surashtra Samghas only.
And Kautiliya further states that the Shrenis of the 'shastr-opajivis' (i.e the Kambojas and Surashtras etc) were the most heroic (shreni.pravira.purusanam and best fit for military recruitment [34].
Scholars have designated Varta-shastr.opajivin Samghas of Kautailiya by the terms like martial nations or nations-in-arms [35].
Martial republics of Kautiliya's Arthashastra were headed by the Kambojas' [36].
[edit] Nation-in-Arms or Martial Republics: Characteristics
Military training was mendatory in these 'varta-shastr.opajivin' States, but after the training was over, the individual was free to adopt the profession of his choice. At the time of emergency, any numbers of army, depending upon situation could be summoned in a moment's notice. The whole citizenry was its army and thus was immeasurably superior to the hired levies of monarchies, or of the king-consul (Raja-shabd.opajivin) States of Kautiliya. Bravery was a point of ambition and honour amongst the citizens. And when these nations formed offensive or defensive league, they were regarded as invincible. Each State was a nation-in-arms... martial and industrial, in the same breadth. The hand which wielded sword successfully was also accustomed to use scythe with equal facility. According to Buddhist documents and Arthashastra, they were agricultural and industrial. Hence, they were found rich and strong (cf also: Kambojah....yama vaishravan.opamah : MBH 7.23.42)
[edit] Confederated Ganas/Samghas: Virtually invincible
Mahabharata says it is almost impossible for an enemy to crush the confedrated Ganas or republics [37].
Alliance with the Ganas was always eagerly courted by the outsiders and they (Ganas) took special delight in reducing their foes and saw to it their own prosperity [38].
Buddha himself gave his opinion to Chancelleor of Magadha that confederated Vajjis (a republican people) could not be conquered by Magadha king.
Kautiliya's Arthashastra emphatically states that the confederated Samghas are virtually invincible [39].
- e.g: "The acquisition (conquest) of a Samgha is more desirable than an alliance of good will or military aid. Those (Samghas) which are united (in league) should be treated with the policy of subsidy and peace, for they are invincible. Those which are not united should be conquered by army and disunion [40].
[edit] Araja. Vishaya (Kingless) Kambojas of Maurya Empire
The democratic constitution of the Kambojas is further attested from Rock Edicts V and XIII of king Ashoka. The Kambojas find a prominent mention as a political unit in his Rock Edict XIII. This Rock Edict reveals that Kambojas had enjoyed autonomy under the Mauryas.
The republics mentioned in Rock Edict V are Yonas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Nabhakas and the Nabhapamkitas. They are designated as araja.visaya in king Ashoka's edicts.
- Hidh.araja.visyavasi Yonekambojesu eti....[41].
i.e here in the kingless territories among the Yonas, Kambojas...
The term araja-vishaya stands for kingless or non-monarchical nations [42].
This shows that Kambojas of Ashoka's Rock Edicts had constituted self-governing nation within Maurya Empire.
[edit] Sinhala evidence on Kamboja republicanism
The Puga (Samgha) and Goshthe (Corporations) of the Kabojhiya (Sanskrit Kambojas) are referred to in ancient cave inscriptions of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka which attest expression like Gota-Kabojhiyana (Sanskrit: goshthe) and Kabojhiya-mahapugiyana (Sanskrit: maha-pugiyanam i.e grand Samgha) of the Kambojas. The inscriptions also make mention of their republican titles such as Gamika (Sanskrit: Gamini, Gramaneya), and Pramaka (Sanskrit: Parmuka) etc. The Samghas of Sinhalese Kambojas appear to have been organised on the pattern of their political Samghas in the north-west, where the Sinhalese Kambojas had migrated from. This evidence again supports the democratic character of the ancient Kamboja society.
[edit] Modern Kamboj: still theoretically democratic
There have traditionally been democratic entities in each Kamboj village. They were the assemblies of elders or wisemen unanimously accepted as a sort of parliament to resolve all intra-communal matters and disputes rather than letting them go to police stations or law courts. The system traditionally obtained among the Kamboj community till the partioning of the Indian sub-continent into India and Pakistan in 1947. Thereafter, the old traditional assemblies of elders gave way to the Panchayats which are democratically elected by the adult voting every five years. These Panchayats now usually take care of most of the community issues and matters. The Kamboj rarely let the intra-community disputes go out of community. It is often taken as disgrace. This is the heritage the Kambojs have inherited from their republican ancestors. All Kamboj adults enthusiatically participate in Panchayat elections which are always considered more important among the Kamboj people than the state or national elections.
[edit] References
- ^ Hindu Polity, p 101, Dr Jayswal.
- ^ Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon containing Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary.
- ^ History of Punjab, 1997, p 311, Editors: Dr Fauja Singh, Dr L. M. Joshi.
- ^ State and Government in Ancient India, 1992, pp 109-113, Dr A. S. Altekar.
- ^ Few references defining Ganas as Republics: Truth, Myth, and Politics in Ancient India, 1972, p 7, Ian W. Mabbett; Proceedings, 1971, Institute of Port Management; Democracy in India, 1960, p 17, S. Kumar. Ray; The White Umbrella: Indian political thought from Manu to Gandhi, 1953, p 18,. Donald Mackenzie Brown; Ancient Indian Republics: from the earliest times to the 6th century A.D. , 1976, p 17, Shivenandan Misra; Theory of Government in Ancient India, 1968, p 66, Beni Prasad; Social, Cultural and Economic History of India: medieval age, 1978, p 90, S. C. Raychoudhry; Socialism, Sarvodaya, and Democracy: selected works of Jayaprakash Narayan, 1964, p 204, Jayaprakash Arayan N, Bimal Prasad; Police Administration in Ancient India, 1987, p 68, Kamal Kishore Mishra; Concept of Panchayati Raj, 1964, p 19, Narayan Bose; Rural India, p 171, Adarsh Seva Samgha; Buddhism: By Rahul Sankrityayan [and Others], 1970, p 2, Rahula Saṅkr̥tyayana; The Political Institutions and Theories of the Hindus: A Study in Comparative Politics, 1939, p 152, Benoy Kumar Sarkar; Introduction to the Constitution of India, 2005, p 41, Brij Kishore Sharma; The Indian Struggle, 1920-1934, 1935, p 15, Subhas Chandra Bose; Indian Culture and Religious Thought, 1962, p 128, M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar; The Status of Women in the Epics, 1966, p 215, Shakambari Jayal, Justice by Tribunals: A Study in Methods with Reference to India, 1973, p 111, M. M. Singh; Tribal Coins: A Study (the Yaudheyas, the Mālavas, the Audumbaras, and the Kuṇindas), 1972, Mahesh Kumar Sharan, Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History, 1971, p 24, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar; History of Kośala Up to the Rise of the Mouryas, 1963, p 360, Vishuddhanand Pathak; Study in Hindu and European Political Systems, 1958, p 213, Ramaprasad Dasgupta; Substance of Hindu Polity, 1959, p 68, Chandra Prakash Bhambhri; The Modern Review; p 540, edited by Ramananda Chatterjee; Janapada State in Ancient India, 1973, p 130, Sudāmā Miśra; An Outline of the Cultural History of India, 1958, p 130, edited by Syed Abdul Latif; India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī , 1953, Dr Vasudeva Sharana Agrawala; The Coins of Karnataka, 1975, p 25, A. V. Narasimha Murthy; The Aryan Path, p 86, Indian Institute of World Culture; Two Sacred Worlds: Experience and Structure in the World's Religions, 1977, p 77, Larry D. Shinn; Dāsa-śūdra Slavery: studies in the origins of Indian slavery and feudalism and their philosophies, 1982, p 145,Sharad Patil; Professor P. K. Gode: Commemoration Volume, 1960, p 50, Madhukar Mangesh Patkar, H. L. Hariyappa, Parashuram Krishna Gode; The Evolution of the Indian Constitution: a historical and analytical treatise on the system of..., 1935, p 4, K V Ramasubrahmanyam; Evolution of Indian Culture, 1967, p 159, Bhanwarlal Nathuram Luniya; Studies in Panchayati Raj, 1963, p 2, B. Maheshwari; Concept of Panchayati Raj, 1964, p 19, Narayan Bose; Religion in Socio Economic Life of India, 1989, p 27, Satchidananda Dhar; Knowledge and Intervention: Studies in Society and Consciousness, 1985, p 237, Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya; Early History of Rajasthan, 1978, p 11, Dinesh Chandra Shukla, Dineśa Candra; The Indian Year Book of International Affairs, p 97, The Indian Study Group of International Affairs, University of Madras, India; The Western Political Quarterly, 1992, p 245 by Southern California Political Science Association, Pacific Northwest Political Science Association, Western Political Science Association, University of Utah Institute of Government – 1992 etc etc.
- ^ Ashtadhyayi, Sutra III.3.86; India as known to Panini, 1953, p 428, Dr V. S. Aggarwala.
- ^ AyudhajIviSaMghAJNJNyaDvAhIkeshhvabrAhmaNarAjanyAth (114);
- VrikATTeNyaN (115);
- dAmanyAditrigartashhashhThAchchhaH(116);
- ParshvAdi.'YaudheyAdibhyAmaNaJNau(117);
- (Ashtadhyayi Sutra 5.3.114-117);
- ^ .
- Vahikesu ya ayudhajivi Samgha.stadhaachina.n ....Kshudrakyah: Malavayah |
- ^
- Malava.Gana.sya (of Malava Gana)
- (Catalogue of coins in the Indian Museum pp 170-174).
- Malava.Gana.sya (of Malava Gana)
- ^
- Shri Malava-Gana.nate parshaste Krta.sangyake
- (Epigraphia Indica, Vol IX, p 320).
- Shri Malava-Gana.nate parshaste Krta.sangyake
- ^
- narayanashcha gopalah Kambojana.n cha ye Ganah. ||39||
- Karnena vijitah purva.n sangrame shura sammatah. ||
- (MBH 7.91.39-40).
- ^ : (MBH 7.91.39-40).
- ^ Arthashastra 11.1.04.
- ^
- Shrenayo bahusahasrah samshaptaka ganash cha ye ||
- (MBH 8/5/40).
- ^ MBH 12.107.6-32
- ^ Mahabharata, 12.107.6-32).
- ^
- tatra danena bhidyante ganah sanghatavrittayah. ||12||
- tasmatsanghatayogeshu prayateranganah sada. ||14||
- artha hyevadhigamyante sanghatabalapaurushat. || 15||
- tasmatsanghatamevahurganana.n sharanam mahat .||32||
- (MBH 12/107/12, 14, 15, 32).
- ^ MBH 12.107.11-15).
- ^
- na tu shauryena buddhya va rupadravyena va punah |
- bhedachchaiva pramadachcha namyante ripubhirganah ||31||
- (MBH 12.107.31).
- ^
- dravyavantashcha shurashcha shastragyah shastraparagah ||
- (MBH 12.107.21).
- ^
- ye tvete rathino rajandrishyante ka~nchanadhvajah ||
- ete durvarana nama Kamboja yadi te shrutah. || 43 ||
- shurashcha kritavidyashcha dhanurvede cha nishthitah. ||
- sa.nhatashcha bhrisha.n hyete anyonyasya hitaishinah || 44 ||
- akshauhinyashcha sa.nrabdha dhartarashtrasya bharata.||
- (MBH 7.112.43-44).
- ^
- Etayan ca tuchenaitayan ta yajushaitabhischa vyahayitibir.vairajyaya etasyam Udichyam disi ye ke cha parena Himavantam Janapada Uttara-Kurrava Uttara-Madra iti Vairajyayaiva te bhishichyante Virat-ityenan-abhishiktan achakshata eta meva Devanam vihitimanu
- (Aitareya Brahamana, VIII.14).
- Etayan ca tuchenaitayan ta yajushaitabhischa vyahayitibir.vairajyaya etasyam Udichyam disi ye ke cha parena Himavantam Janapada Uttara-Kurrava Uttara-Madra iti Vairajyayaiva te bhishichyante Virat-ityenan-abhishiktan achakshata eta meva Devanam vihitimanu
- ^ (Aitareya Brahamana, VIII.14).
- ^ Sutra 18.13; 18,44
- ^ Sutra 1.1.30.
- ^ Persica-9, 1980, fn-3, Dr M. Witzel
- ^ See: Evolution of Heroic Tradition in ancient Panjab, 1971, p 53, Dr Buddha Parkash; Also see: The Age of Imperial Unity, History and Culture of Indian People, p 49, Ed Dr R. C. Majumdar, Dr A. D. Pusalkar.
- ^
- HaihayaisTalajanghaishcha shakaih sardha.n dvijottamah || 03 ||
- Yavanah Paradashchaiva Kambojah Pahlavastatha |
- ete hyapi ganah.pancha haihayarthe parakraman .|| 04 ||
- (Harivamsa 14.03-04).
- ^ Hindu Polity, Part I & II, p 52, Dr K. P. Jayswal; Ancient Kambojas, 1981, pp 264-65, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
- ^ Arthashastra 11.1.04-05.
- ^ Hindu Polity, Part I & II, p 52.
- ^
- Kamboja.surastra.kshatriya.shreny.adayo varta.shastra.upajivinah ||
- Licchivika. Vrjika. Mallaka. Madraka. Kukura. Kuru. Panchala.adayo raja.shabda.upajivinah ||
- (Arthashasra 11.1.04-05).
- ^ (Kautiliya's Arthashastra, 1956, Dr R. Shamashastriy, p 407, book XI, Chap 1).
- ^
- tesam alabhe bandhu.mitra.kulebhyah samaarjanam || 26 ||
- utsaaha.hiinah shreni.praviira.purusanam
- cora.gana.atavika.mleccha.jatinam para.apakarinam
- gudha.purusanam ca yathaa.labbham upacayam kurvita || 27 ||
- para.mishra.apratikaaram abaliyasam vaa paresu prayujita || 28 ||
- (Arthashastra 7.14.26-28).
- ^ Hindu Polity, pp 31, 51-52, 163-64.
- ^ op cit, p 52.
- ^ MBH 12.107.31
- ^ MBH 12.107.15.
- ^
- samgha.laabho danda.mitra.laabhaanaam uttamah || 1 ||
- samghaa hi samhatatvaad adhrsyaah paresaam || 2 ||
- taan anugunaan bhujjiita saama.daanaabhyaam, vigunaan bheda.dandaabhyaam || 3 ||
- (Arthashastra 11.1.01-03).
- ^ Hindu Polity, 1978, p 115, Dr K. P. Jayswal.
- ^ Rock Edict XIII
- ^ Hindu Polity, 1978, pp 130-131.
[edit] See also
[edit] Books and Articles
- Mahabharata, Tans: Kisari Mohan Ganguli
- Kautiliya's Arthashasta, Trans: Dr Sham Shastri
- India as Known to Panini, Dr V. S. Aggarwala
- Hindu Polity, A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times, 1978, Dr K. P.Jayswal
- Ancient Kamboja, People and Country, 1981 Dr J. L. Kamboj
- Indian Historical Quarterly, XIV,-2, 1938, Dr H. K. Deb
- Janapadas States in Ancient India, 1973, S. Misra
- Ancient India, 2000, Dr V. D. Mahajan
- State and Government in Ancient India, 1977, Dr A. S. Altekar
- Aspects of Political Ideas & Institutuiions in Ancient India, R. S. Sharma
- Corporate life in Ancient India, 1922, Dr R. C. Majumdar
- Sovereignty in Ancient Indian Polity, H. N. Sinha
- Republics, Kingdoms, Towns and Cities in Ancient India,2003, G.P. Singh
[edit] External link
- ECIT Democracy in Ancient India:[2]
