Iran

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Editing of this article by unregistered or newly registered users is currently disabled. Such users may discuss changes, request unprotection, log in, or create an account.

Iran, (Persian: ايران‎ , Īrān; pronunciation: [iːˈɾɒn], officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ايران‎ , transliteration: Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān), and also known as Persia in the West, is the world's seventeenth largest country, located at the junction of the Middle East, Southwest Asia, and the Caucasus. Its area equals the size of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined. Iran borders Armenia, Azerbaijan (including its Nakhichevan exclave) and Turkmenistan to the north, Afghanistan and Pakistan to the east, and Iraq and Turkey to the west. In addition, it borders the Persian Gulf, across which lie Kuwait, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. Shi'a Islam is the official state religion and Persian the official language.^[1]

The people within present-day Iran are the descendants of many of the world's oldest known civilizations. The history of people in Iran covers over six thousand years,^[2] and throughout history, Iran has been of great geostrategic importance because of its central location in Eurasia. Iran is a founding member of the United Nations, NAM, OIC, OPEC, and ECO. Iran is significant in international politics on account of its large supply of petroleum and regional influence.^[3] Iran is also one of the few states that comprise the Cradle of Humanity. The name Iran is a cognate of Aryan and literally means "Land of the Aryans."^[4]

Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Early history and the Median and Achaemenian Empires (3200 BCE – 330 BCE) 2.2 Third Iranian Empire: Parthian Empire (248 BCE – 224 CE) 2.3 Fourth Iranian Empire: Sassanian Empire (224 – 651 CE) 2.4 From the fall of the Sassanian Dynasty to the Mongol invasion 2.5 The Mongol Invasion 2.6 Shi'a Islam, Safavid Empire and Qajars (1501 – 1920) 2.7 Modern Iran: From Pahlavi to Islamic Revolution (1921 – 1979) 2.8 Islamic Revolution and Iran-Iraq War (1979 – 1988) 3 Government and politics 3.1 Supreme Leader 3.2 Executive 3.3 Legislative 3.3.1 Parliament 3.3.2 Council of Guardians 3.3.3 Expediency Council 3.4 Judiciary 3.5 Assembly of Experts 3.6 City and village councils 4 Administrative divisions 5 Geography and climate 6 Economy 7 Demographics 8 Major cities 9 Military 10 Culture 10.1 Cuisine 10.2 Sports 10.3 Iranian art 10.4 Architecture 10.5 Poetry 10.6 Iran's historical contributions 11 Scientific progress 12 See also 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links

Etymology

In former ages, the names Aryânâ and Persis were used to describe the region which is today known as the Iranian plateau. The earliest Iranian reference to the word (airya/arya/aryana etc), however, dates back to the Iranian teacher Zoroaster (est. anywhere between 1200 to 1800 BCE, according to Greek sources, as early as 6000 BCE^[6][7] and is attested in non-Gathic Avestan; it appears as airya, meaning noble/spiritual/elevated; as airya dainhava (Yt.8.36, 52) meaning the "land of the Aryans" and as airyana vaejah, "the original land of the Aryans."^[4]

During the Achaemenian dynasty (550-330 BCE), the Persian people called their provincial homeland Pârsa, the Old Persian name for Cyrus the Great's kingdom, which belonged to the Persian tribe of the Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranians and which is retained in the term "Pars" or "Fars" (from which the adjective "Farsi" is derived). It is part of the heartland of Iran and is identified in historical maps, such as Eratosthenes's, and in modern maps.

The word Ariya, meaning "noble", "spiritual", and "elevated", is also attested in the Inscriptions of Darius the Great and his son, Xerxes I. It is used both as a linguistic and an ethnic designation. Darius and Xerxes refers to these meanings in the Behistun inscription (DBiv.89), which is written in a language referred to as airyan, or more commonly as Old Persian. Both Darius and Xerxes state in inscriptions at Naqsh-i Rustam (DNa.14), Susa (DSe.13), and Persepolis (XPh.13):

Adam Pârsa, Pârsahyâ puça; Ariya, Ariya ciça... I am Persian, son of a Persian; an Aryan, from an Aryan lineage.

In Parthian times (248 BCE – 224 CE), Aryanam was modified to Aryan. In the early Sassanid Period (224–651 CE), it had already evolved to Middle Persian Ērān or Ērān Shahr which finally resulted in New Persian Iran or Iran Shahr.^[8] At the time of the Achaemenian empire, the Greeks called the country Persis, the Greek name for Pars (Fars), the central region where the empire was founded; this passed into Latin and became Persia, the name widely used in Western countries which causes confusion as Persia is actually Pars (Fars) province.^[9][4][10] On 21 March 1935, Reza Shah Pahlavi issued a decree asking foreign delegates to use the term Iran in formal correspondence in accordance with the fact that "Persia" was a term used for a country called "Iran" in Persian. (see Iran naming dispute). The 1979 Revolution led to the current name Islamic Republic of Iran, but the noun Persia and Iran, and the adjective Persian are still used.

History

Main article: History of Iran

See also: Persian Empire

Early history and the Median and Achaemenian Empires (3200 BCE – 330 BCE)

Main articles: Median Empire and Achaemenid Empire

Dozens of pre-historic sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements, centuries before the earliest civilizations arose in nearby Mesopotamia.^[12]

Written history of Persia (Iran) begins around 3200 BCE with the Proto-Iranian civilization,^[13] followed by the Elamites. The arrival of the Aryans (Indo-Iranians) in the third and second millennium BCE and the establishing of the Median dynasty (728–550 BCE) culminated in the first Iranian Empire. The Medes are credited with the foundation of Iran as a nation and empire, the largest of its day until Cyrus the Great established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians leading to the Achaemenian Empire (648–330 BCE), founded by Cyrus the Great.

After Cyrus' death, his son Cambyses continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt. A power struggle followed Cambyses' death and, despite his tenuous connection to the royal line, Darius was declared king (ruled 522-486 BCE). He was to be arguably the greatest of the ancient Persian rulers.

While Darius' first capital was at Susa, he also initiated the construction of Persepolis. He then built a canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, a forerunner of the modern Suez Canal. It is during his reign that mention is first made of the Royal Road (shown on map), a great highway stretching all the way from Susa to Sardis with posting stations at regular intervals.

Under Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point, ruling and administrating over most of the then known world.^[14] Their greatest achievement was the empire itself. The Persian Empire represented the world's first global superpower,^[15][16] and was based on a model of tolerance and respect for other cultures and religions.^[17][18]

The borders of the Persian empire stretched from the Indus and Oxus Rivers in the East, to the Mediterranean Sea in the West, extending through Anatolia (modern day Turkey) and Egypt. But one of the cities along the cost of Anatolia, Miletus, ruled by a Greek tyrant named Aristagoras in 499 BCE staged a revolt and turned to the Athenians for aid. Until then the Persians had no plan or desire to go into Europe. Subsequently, an Athenian assault on a major Persian province, culminated in the sacking and burning of the city of Sardis. It is this destructive event, and not any unprovoked Persian invasion of Greece, that started what is known as the Greco-Persian Wars, which included encounters such as the Battle of Thermopylae. And neither did Aristagoras start his revolt for "freedom" or "democracy," but rather as a step in his intrigue to take control of another Greek city (Naxos) on the Anatolian coast. The Athenians did not bring freedom or democracy to Sardis either. It was burnt and looted. In 494 BCE the Persians soundly defeated the Greek forces at the battle of Lade, and the coast of Anatolia was once again peaceful.^[19]

Alexander of Macedon known as "Arda Wiraz Namag", "the accursed Alexander" in the Zoroastrian Middle Persian work, brought an end to the Achaemenid empire, and conquered Persia in 333 BCE burning and looting many cities on his path until his death in the Persian capital of Babylon, only to be soon followed by two more vast and unified Iranian empires that further shaped the pre-Islamic identity of Iran and Central Asia: the Parthian (250 BCE-226 CE) and Sassanian (226-650 CE) dynasties. The latter was able to defeat the Roman empire at the height of its power on several occasions.

Third Iranian Empire: Parthian Empire (248 BCE – 224 CE)

Main article: Parthian Empire

Parthia was led by the Arsacid dynasty, who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, after defeating the Greek Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late 3rd century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 150 BCE and 224 CE. It was the second native dynasty of ancient Iran (Persia) and lasted five centuries, longer than most Eastern Empires. Parthia was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east; and it limited Rome's expansion beyond Cappadocia (central Anatolia). The Parthian armies included two types of cavalry: the heavily-armed and armoured cataphracts and lightly armed but highly-mobile mounted archers. For the Romans, who relied on heavy infantry, the Parthians were too hard to defeat, as both types of cavalry were much faster and more mobile than foot soldiers. On the other hand, the Parthians found it difficult to occupy conquered areas as they were unskilled in siege warfare. Because of these weaknesses, neither the Romans nor the Parthians were able to completely annex each other.

Fourth Iranian Empire: Sassanian Empire (224 – 651 CE)

Main article: Sassanian Empire

The end of the Parthian Empire came in 224 CE, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by Ardashir I, one of the empire's vassals. Ardashir I then went on to create the Sassanian Empire. Soon he started reforming the country both economically and militarily. The empire's territory encompassed all of today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, eastern parts of Turkey, and parts of Syria, Pakistan, Caucasia, Central Asia and Arabia. During Khosrau II's rule in 590-628, Egypt, Jordan, Palestine and Lebanon were also annexed to the Empire. The Sassanians called their empire Erânshahr (or Iranshahr, "Dominion of the Aryans", i.e. of Iranians).^[20]

A chapter of Iran's history followed after roughly six hundred years of conflict with the Roman Empire. According to historians, the war-exhausted Persians lost the Battle of al-Qâdisiyah (632 CE) in Hilla, (present day Iraq). The Persian general Rostam Farrokhzad had been criticised for his decision to face the Arabs on their own ground, suggesting that the Persians could have prevailed if they had stayed on the opposite bank of the Euphrates. The first day of battle ended with Persian advances and the Arab force appeared as though it would succumb to the much larger Sassanian army. In particular, the latter's elephants terrified the Arab cavalry. By the third day of the battle, Arab veterans of the Syrian campaign arrived on the scene and reinforced the Arab army. In addition, a clever trick – whereby the Arab horses were decorated in costume – succeeded in frightening the Persian elephants. When an Arab warrior succeeded in slaying the lead elephant, the rest fled into the rear, trampling numerous Persian fighters. At dawn of the fourth day, a sandstorm broke out – blowing sand in the Persians' faces resulting in total disarray for the Sassanian army and paving way for the Islamic conquest of Persia.

From the fall of the Sassanian Dynasty to the Mongol invasion

Meanwhile while Europe was in the Dark Ages Persia was conquered and incorporated into the Arab Empire. But its defeat was to transform itself into a special kind of victory: Iranian political thought, especially, but also Persian literature, philosophy, medicine and art became major elements of the newly-forming Muslim civilization. A great proportion of the most important contributors to the new disciplines of Arabic grammar, and the study of prophetic Traditions or Hadith, were Iranian.

In addition to this undisputed intellectual superiority, the result of thousands of years of civilization, Persia also had the benefit of its craftsmen’s mastery, the skill of its traders and of facilities it enjoyed because of its traditional position as a crossroads of the major "highways" of that period.^[21]

The Persians were fairly rapidly able to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders. It was a Persian, Abu Moslem, who expelled the Umayyads from Damascus and helped the Abbasid caliphs to conquer Baghdad. They frequently chose their "wazirs" (viziers) among Persians and Persian governors acquired a certain amount of local autonomy. In 822 AD, the governor of Khorasan, Tahir, proclaimed his independence and founded a new Persian dynasty of Tahirids. Others followed in a somewhat complicated pattern, but Persia was once again the master of its own destiny.^[22]

There was a resurgence of Persian national identity. It was not against Islamic identity but against Arabization of Islam and Muslims. As a result, a cultural movement emerged during the ninth and tenth centuries. The most notable effect of the movement was the decision of the continuation of the Persian language, the language of the Persians and the official language of Iran to the present day. Ferdowsi, Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most important person in maintaining the Persian language.

During this period, Persia and Persian scientists created an Islamic Golden Age (see List of Iranian scientists and scholars). Persia was at this point of history a world center of scientific inquiry, with philosophers, scientists, engineers and historians contributing enormously to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science in the Renaissance.^[23]

Scholars made significant advances in mathematics, medicine, astronomy, engineering, and many other fields. During this time Islamic philosophy developed and was often pivotal in scientific debates—key figures were usually scientists and philosophers. Persian scientist Ibn Sina played a major role in saving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds.

During the eleventh century, the invaders came in from the Northwestern provinces of the former Sassanian Empire. They became sufficiently powerful to dominate local Persian dynasties. Mahmud-a Ghaznavi founded a vast empire, with its capital at Isfahan.

The Seljuqs, his successors, asserted their domination from the Mediterranean Sea to Central Asia. These sovereigns usually named Persians as viziers and Persia was a hotbed of intense cultural activity.

The Mongol Invasion

At the beginning of the thirteenth century Genghis Khan united scattered tribes of Mongolia and started attacking the neighbouring countries. In 1218, he came down from the Altai mountains, marched through Iranian territories in Transoxiana to Khorasan, occupied mainland-Persia, then turned east through India and China. Most of the countries he conquered never really recovered from the bloodshed and destruction he wrought upon them. Holaku, one of the conqueror's grandsons, was left behind to reign over Persia. He very soon became "Persianized". Settled in Maragheh (South of Tabriz), he called Persian men of letters to his court and encouraged the sciences and arts.

But yet another conqueror, Tamerlane (Teymur-e Lang), was to be seduced by the mirage of an Empire of the Orient. In 1370, he entered into Iran. Over a period of thirty years, he conquered Iraq, Syria, Anatolia, Russia and northern parts of India; he was about to invade China when he died in 1404. He chose Samarkand as his capital and his kingdom, while administered by Turkmen, was of distinctively Persian culture.

Shi'a Islam, Safavid Empire and Qajars (1501 – 1920)

Main articles: Safavid Empire and Qajar dynasty

Persia's first encompassing Shi'a Islamic state was established under the Safavid dynasty in 1501 by Shah Ismail I. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major power in the world and started the promotion of tourism in Iran. Under their rule Persian Architecture flowered again and saw many new monuments. The fall of the Safavid dynasty was brought about by the Afghans, who overthrew the weak Shah Sultan Hossein, in 1722. In 1736 Nader Shah expelled Afghan rebels and established the Afsharid dynasty. He invaded India in 1738 and brought many treasures back to Persia. He was assassinated in 1747. The Afshar dynasty was followed by the Persian Zand dynasty (1750–1794), founded by Karim Khan, who established his capital at Shiraz. His rule brought a period of peace and renewed prosperity.These three dynasties are considered the contemporary golden age of Iranian history. However, the country was soon again in turmoil, which lasted until the advent of Aga Muhammad Khan, the founder of Qajar dynasty. After his death Iran turned into an arena for the rising new powers of Imperial Russia and the British Empire, which wielded great political influence in Tehran under the Qajarid kings. Iran however, managed to maintain its sovereignty and was never colonized, making it unique in the region. However it lost a lot of its power and land.

Modern Iran: From Pahlavi to Islamic Revolution (1921 – 1979)

Main article: Pahlavi dynasty

The rise of modernization and encroachment of stronger Western powers in the late nineteenth century led to the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1911. Reformers hoped the constitution would strengthen Iran against imperial Russia and Britain by centralizing and modernizing it. Ultimately the constitution became law, but its provisions were seldom followed during most of its history. In 1921, Cossack army officer Reza Khan (known as Reza Shah after assuming the throne) staged a coup against the weakened Qajar dynasty. An autocrat and supporter of modernization, Reza Shah initiated the development of modern industry, railroads, and establishment of a national education system. Reza Shah sought to balance the influence of Russia and Britain by seeking out assistance and technology from European powers traditionally not involved in Iranian affairs, but when World War II started his closeness to Germany alarmed allied powers Russia and Britain, Germany's enemies.

In summer of 1941 Britain and the USSR invaded Iran to prevent Iran from allying with the Axis powers. The Allies occupied Iran, securing a supply line to Russia, Iran's petroleum infrastructure, and forced the Shah to abdicate in favor of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1951, a nationalist politician, Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh rose to prominence in Iran and was elected Prime Minister. As Prime Minister, Mossadegh became enormously popular in Iran by nationalizing the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later British Petroleum, BP) which controlled the country's oil reserves. In response, Britain embargoed Iranian oil and began plotting to depose Mossadegh. Members of the British Intelligence Service invited the United States to join them, convincing U.S. President Eisenhower that Mossadegh was reliant on the Tudeh (Communist) Party to stay in power. In 1953, President Eisenhower authorized Operation Ajax, and the CIA took the lead in overthrowing Mossadegh and supporting a US-friendly monarch.

The CIA faced many setbacks, but the covert operation soon went into full swing, conducted from the US Embassy in Tehran under the leadership of Kermit Roosevelt, Jr. Iranians were hired to protest Mossadegh and fight pro-Mossadegh demonstrators. Anti- and pro-monarchy protestors violently clashed in the streets, leaving almost three hundred dead. The operation was successful in triggering a coup, and within days, pro-Shah tanks stormed the capital and bombarded the Prime Minister's residence. Mossadegh surrendered, and was arrested on 19 August 1953. He was tried for treason, and sentenced to three years in prison.

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi returned to power greatly strengthened and his rule became increasingly autocratic in the following years. With strong support from the US and UK, the Shah further modernized Iranian industry, but simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency, SAVAK. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became an active critic of the Shah's White Revolution and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini, who was popular in religious circles, was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General Hassan Pakravan. Khomeini was sent first to Turkey and then to Iraq. While in exile, he continued to denounce the Shah.

Islamic Revolution and Iran-Iraq War (1979 – 1988)

Main article: Iranian Revolution

Starting in late 1977, protests began to build against the Shah and his autocratic, secular, pro-Western policies. By December 1978 millions of Iranians were in the streets and the country's economy was paralyzed. The Shah left the country in mid-January 1979 and two weeks later the Revolution's pre-eminent leader, Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile to tumultuous, adoring crowds. The final collapse of the old regime came on February 11 when royal troops were defeated by guerillas and rebel troops in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on April 1 after Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum declaring the country so.

The 1979 revolution was populist, nationalist and most of all Shia Islamist. It reversed the Shah's close political, social and cultural relationship with America and the West. Beyond that, Khomeini and his supporters worked to implement his vision of an Islamic state with sharia, or conservative Islamic laws, and clerical rule. Iran's unique new theocratic constitution included the post of Supreme Leader for Khomeini and his successors, and other bodies of clerics to veto new laws and vet candidates for public office.

Iran's relations with the United States became deeply antagonistic following the revolution. On November 4, 1979, Iranian students seized US embassy personnel labeling the embassy a "den of spies"^[24] and accused its personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953. Khomeini did not stop the students from holding embassy employees hostage and instead supported the embassy takeover.^{[citation needed]}. Women, African Americans and one hostage diagnosed with multiple sclerosis were soon released, the remaining 52 were held for 444 days. The students demanded the handover of the shah in exchange for the hostages, and following the Shah's death in the summer of 1980, that the hostages be put on trial for espionage. Subsequently attempts by the U.S. administration to negotiate or rescue the remaining hostages through such methods as Operation Eagle Claw, were unsuccessful until January 1981 when the Algiers declaration was agreed upon. The U.S. promised (among other things) in the accord to release Iranian assets that had been frozen, but as of 2007 those assets still remain frozen.

Main article: Iran-Iraq War

Meanwhile, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution, and with the Shah ousted, Hussein had ambitions to position himself as the new strong man of the Middle East. He also sought to expand Iraq's access to the Persian Gulf by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was Khuzestan which not only boasted a substantial Arab population, but rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the United Arab Emirates, the islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs became objectives as well. With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. On September 22, 1980 the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the Iran-Iraq War known as Saddâm's Qâdisiyyah in Iraq and the Imposed War in Iran. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise.

Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini refused a cease-fire from Iraq, demanding huge reparation payments, an end to Saddam's rule, and that he be tried for crimes against humanity. Khomeini also sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations.

Tens of thousands of Iranian civilians and military personnel were killed when Iraq used chemical weapons in its warfare. Iraq was financially backed by Egypt, the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact states, the United States (beginning in 1983), France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Brazil, and the People's Republic of China (which also sold weapons to Iran). All of these countries provided intelligence, agents for chemical weapons as well as other forms of military assistance to Saddam Hussein. Iran's principal allies during the war were Syria, Libya, and North Korea.

With more than 100,000 Iranian victims^[25] of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war, Iran is the world's second-most afflicted country by weapons of mass destruction, only to Japan. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian human wave attacks, while unanimously announcing that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.^{[26][27][28][29]}

See also: Iran 1989-Present

Government and politics

Main articles: Politics and Government of Iran and Foreign relations of Iran

Iran is a founding member of the United Nations organization and also a member of the Organization of the Islamic Conference and the Non-Aligned Movement. The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979 Constitution called the "Qanun-e Asasi" ("Fundamental Law"). The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies.

Supreme Leader

Main article: Supreme Leader of Iran

The Supreme Leader of Iran is responsible for delineation and supervision of "the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran". The Supreme Leader is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the Council of Guardians are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The Assembly of Experts elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.^[30] The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties.

Executive

Main article: President of Iran

After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President as the highest state authority. The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years. Presidential candidates must be approved by the Council of Guardians prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution. The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters. The President appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-one ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature. Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence.

Legislative

The current legislature of Iran is a unicameral body. Before the Islamic Revolution, the legislature was bicameral, but the upper house was removed under the new constitution.

Parliament

Main article: Majlis of Iran

The Majles-e Shura-ye Eslami (Islamic Consultative Assembly) is comprised of 290 members elected for four-year terms. The Majlis drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Council of Guardians.

Council of Guardians

Main article: Council of Guardians

The Council of Guardians comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the Parliament from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary. The Council interprets the constitution and may veto Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision. In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates.

Expediency Council

Main article: Expediency Discernment Council

The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.

Judiciary

Main article: Judicial system of Iran

The Supreme Leader appoints the head of the Judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.

Assembly of Experts

Main article: Assembly of Experts

The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the Council of Guardians determines candidates' eligibility. The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been publicly known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.

City and village councils

Main article: City and Village Councils of Iran

Local councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and co-ordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs.

Administrative divisions

Main article: Provinces of Iran

Iran is divided into thirty provinces (ostanha, sing. ostan), each governed by an appointed governor (استاندار, ostāndār). The map does not show the southern islands of Hormozgan (#20 listed below):

1 Tehran 2 Qom 3 Markazi 4 Qazvin 5 Gilan 6 Ardabil 7 Zanjan 8 East Azarbaijan 9 West Azarbaijan 10 Kurdistan

11 Hamedan 12 Kermanshah 13 Ilam 14 Lorestan 15 Khuzestan 16 Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari 17 Kohkiluyeh and Buyer Ahmad 18 Bushehr 19 Fars 20 Hormozgan

21 Sistan and Baluchistan 22 Kerman 23 Yazd 24 Esfahan 25 Semnan 26 Mazandaran 27 Golestan 28 North Khorasan 29 Razavi Khorasan 30 South Khorasan

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Iran

See also: Agriculture in Iran and Wildlife of Iran

Iran is the seventeenth-largest country in the world. Its area roughly equals the size of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined, one-fifth the size of the United States or slightly larger than the state of Alaska^[31] Its borders are with Azerbaijan (432 km/268 mi) and Armenia (35 km/22 mi) to the northwest; the Caspian Sea to the north; Turkmenistan (992 km/616 mi) to the northeast; Pakistan (909 km/565 mi) and Afghanistan (936 km/582 mi) to the east; Turkey (499 km/310 mi) and Iraq (1,458 km/906 mi) to the west; and finally the waters of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south. Iran's area is 1,648,000 km² (approximately 636,300 mi²), of which 1,636,000 km² (approx. 631,663 mi²) is land and 12,000 km² (approx. 4,633 mi²) is water.

Iran is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaus from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros and Alborz Mountains; the latter contains Iran's highest point, Mount Damavand at 5,604 m (18,386 ft), which is not only the country's highest peak but also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the Hindu Kush. The eastern part consists mostly of desert basins like the saline Dasht-e Kavir, Iran's largest desert, located in the north-central portion of the country, and the Dasht-e Lut, in the east, as well as some salt lakes. Except for some scattered oases, such as Tabas, these deserts are uninhabited.

The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the Arvand river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz and the Sea of Oman.

Iran's climate is mostly arid or semiarid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29°C (84°F). Annual precipitation is 680 mm (27 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (67 in) in the western part. To the west, settlements in the Zagros Mountains basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters, sub-freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (eight in) of rain and have occasional desert. Average summer temperatures exceed 38°C (100°F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (five to fourteen inches).

Economy

Main article: Economy of Iran

See also: Ministry of Petroleum of Iran, Economic Cooperation Organization, and Next Eleven

Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. Its economic infrastructure has been improving steadily over the past two decades but continues to be affected by inflation and unemployment.

In the early twenty-first century the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture. About 45 percent of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31 percent came from taxes and fees. Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14 percent in the period 2000-2004. In 2004 the GDP was estimated at $163 billion ($542 billion at PPP), or $2,440 per capita ($8,100 at PPP). Because of these figures and the country’s diversified but small industrial base, the United Nations classifies Iran's economy as semideveloped.

The services sector has seen the greatest long-term growth in terms of its share of GDP, but the sector remains volatile. State investment has boosted agriculture with the liberalization of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Thanks to the construction of many dams throughout the country in recent years, large-scale irrigation schemes, and the wider production of export-based agricultural items like dates, flowers, and pistachios, produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the 1990s. Although successive years of severe drought in 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001 have held back output growth substantially, agriculture remains one of the largest employers, accounting for 22% of all jobs according to the 1991 census.

The current administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. It is attempting to do this by investing revenues in areas like automobile manufacturing, aerospace industries, consumer electronics, petrochemicals and nuclear technology. Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceuticals industry. For energy, it currently relies on conventional methods, but in fall 2007 will commission its first nuclear power plant in Bushehr. Iran is OPEC's second largest oil producer, exporting over three million barrels of oil per day; moreover, it holds 10% of the world's confirmed oil reserves. The strong oil market since 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iran also has the world's second largest natural gas reserves (after Russia). Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, in part due to large-scale state subsidies (totaling more than $30 billion per year) that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline.^[32][33]

Iran's major commercial partners are China, Germany, South Korea, France, Japan, Russia and Italy. Since the late 1990s, Iran has increased its economic cooperation with other developing countries, including Syria, India, Cuba, Venezuela, and South Africa. Iran is also expanding its trade ties with Turkey and Pakistan and shares with its partners the common goal of creating a single economic market in West and Central Asia, much like the European Union called ECO. Iran also expects to attract billions of dollars of foreign investment by creating a more favorable investment climate, such as reduced restrictions and duties on imports, and free-trade zones like in Chabahar and Kish Island.

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Iran and Iranian peoples

Iran is a diverse country consisting of people of many religions and ethnic backgrounds cemented by the Persian culture. Persians, the founders of Ancient Persia, constitute the majority of the population. Seventy percent of present-day Iranians are Iranic peoples, native speakers of Indo-European languages who are descended from the Aryan (Indo-Iranians) tribes that began migrating from Central Asia into what is now Iran in the second millennium BC. The majority of the population speaks one of the Iranian languages, including the official language, Persian. The main ethnic groups are Persians (51%), Azeris (24%), Gilaki and Mazandarani (8%), Kurds (7%), Arabs (3%), Baluchi (2%), Lurs (2%), Turkmens (2%), Qashqai, Armenians, Persian Jews, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, Tats, Pashtuns and others (1%).^[34] Iran's population increased dramatically during the latter half of the twentieth century, reaching about 70 million by 2006. In recent years, however, Iran's birth rate has dropped significantly.^[35] Studies show that Iran's rate of population growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes, by the year 2050, above 90 million.^[36][37] More than two-thirds of the population is under the age of 30, and the literacy rate is 79%^[38].

The Iranian diaspora is estimated at over four million people who emigrated to North America, Europe, South America and Australia, mostly after the Iranian revolution in 1979. Iran also hosts one of the largest refugee populations in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq. As recent as October 10, 2006, Iranian officials have been working hand in hand with the UNHCR and Afghan officials to further its official government policy of repatriation.^[39]

Most Iranians are Muslims; 90% belong to the Shi'a branch of Islam, the official state religion, and about 8% belong to the Sunni branch, mainly Kurds and Iran's Balochi Sunni. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim religious minorities, mainly Baha'is, Mandeans, Hindus, Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians.^[34] The latter three minority religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the Majles (Parliament). However the Baha'i Faith, Iran's largest religious minority, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the persecution of Baha'is has increased with executions, the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education and employment.^[40][41]

Currently the Islamic Republic of Iran is noted for significant human rights violations, despite efforts by human right activists, writers, NGOs and some political parties. Human rights problems include governmental impunity, restricted freedom of speech, gender inequality and in some cases torture.^[42].

According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to social security that covers retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services. This is covered by public revenues and income derived from public contributions. The World Health Organization ranks Iran's healthcare system performance as 93rd among the world's nations.^[43]

Major cities

See also: Transport in Iran and Communications in Iran

Iran has one of the highest urban-growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002 the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.^[44][45] The United Nations predicts that by 2030 the urban population will form 80% of the overall population.^[45] Most of the internal migrants have settled near the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, and Qom. Tehran is the largest city with 7,160,094 inhabitants (metropolitan: 14,000,000). More than half of the country's industry is based there. Industries include the manufacturing of cars, electronics and electrical equipment, military weaponry, textiles, sugar, cement, and chemical products. Mashhad, one of the holiest Shi'a cities, is the second largest city with a population of 2.8 million.

The population of the eight largest cities (2007, unless otherwise noted) are as follows (non-metropolitan estimates):^[46]

Tehran 7,185,831	Mashad 2,463,393	Karaj 1,602,350	Isfahan 1,600,554
Tabriz 1,496,319	Shiraz 1,307,552	Qom 1,081,745	Ahvaz 832,969

Military

Main articles: Military of Iran and Iranian defense industry

The Islamic Republic of Iran has two kinds of armed forces: the regular forces and the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), totalling about 545,000 personnel.^[47]

Iran also has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members, up to 300,000 reservists, and a further 11 million men and women who could be mobilized^[48] This is the largest number of troop mobilization in the world.

Iran's military capabilities are kept largely secret. Since 1992, it has produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, guided missiles, submarines, and a fighter plane.^[49] In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as Fajr-3 (MIRV) missile, Hoot, Kowsar, Fateh-110, Shahab-3, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).

The Fajr-3 (MIRV) is currently Iran's most advanced ballistic missile. It is a domestically-developed and produced liquid fuel missile with an unknown range. The IRIS solid-fuelled missile is a program which is supposed to be Iran's first missile to bring satellites into orbit. In 2005, Iran's military spending represented 1.1% of the GDP or $91 per capita, a lower figure than other Persian Gulf nations^[50]. Iran's military doctrine and capacity is stated to be defense of its own territorial integrity only, not offense.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Iran

See also: Iranian Cinema and Iranian media

Iranian culture has long been a predominant culture of the Middle East and Central Asia, with Persian considered the language of intellectuals during much of the second millennium AD, and the language of religion and the populace before that. Nearly all philosophical, scientific, or literary work of the Islamic empires was written in Pahlavi and then translated into Arabic. The Islamic conquest of Iran commenced a synthesis of the Arabic and Iranian tongues. The early Arab caliphates were largely disdainful toward Persians and Persian culture, and pursued a policy of Arabic supremacy throughout all conquered territories of the empire, which eventually led to the Shu'ubiyeh movement. By the tenth century, the effects of this diffusion threatened to erase native Persian entirely, as Persian writers, scientists, and scholars elected to write in the language of the Qur'an (Arabic) (see List of Iranian scientists and scholars), the lingua franca of the day. This prompted Ferdowsi to compose the Shahnameh (Persian: Book of Kings), Iran's national epic, entirely in native Persian. The epic chronicled Iran's history, from its legendary prehistoric nascence until its defeat at the battle of al-Qādisiyyah. This gave rise to a strong reassertion of Iranian national identity, and is in part responsible for the continued existence of Persian as a separate language:

“

بسی رنج بردم در این سال سی عجم زنده کردم بدین پارسی "For thirty years, I endured much pain and strife, with Persian I gave the Ajam verve and life"

”

Ferdowsi (935–1020)

Iran's literary tradition is rich and diverse. However only a few names such as Rumi and Omar Khayam have surfaced among western popular readership, even though the likes of Hafez and Saadi are considered by many Iranians to be just as influential. Both Hafez and Rumi, for example were practitioners of Sufism, and are quoted by Iranians with the same frequency and weight as the Qur'an.

Iranian Cinema has continued to thrive in modern Iran, and many Iranian directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. (Iranian movies have won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five years.) One of the best-known directors is Abbas Kiarostami. The Iranian media is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance before being released to the public. The state also actively monitors the Internet, which has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of bloggers.^[51]

The Iranian New Year (Norouz) is celebrated on March 21 from Spain in the west to Kazakhstan in the east. It is celebrated as the first day of spring. Norouz was nominated as one of UNESCO's Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2004.^[52]

Iranian customs and traditions often seem complex to the foreigner, but after further study reveal a rich and often intensely warm characteristic. For example, respect for the elderly and hospitality for foreigners, remain highly visible parts of Iranian etiquette, while the highly familial nuclear structure of Iran's society is in stark contrast to many western societies.

Cuisine

Main article: Iranian cuisine

The cuisine of Iran is diverse, with each province featuring dishes, as well as culinary traditions and styles, distinct to their region. Iranian food is not spicy. Most meals consist of a large serving of rice and an accompanying course. The rice is almost always seasoned, usually with saffron. The course typically consists of meat, poultry, or fish. Herbs are used frequently, as is fruit: plums, pomegranates, quince, lime, prunes, apricots, and raisins are all common ingredients in a typical Iranian dish. Onions and garlic are normally used in the preparation of the accompanying course, but are also served separately during meals, either in raw or pickled form.

Sports

Main article: Sports in Iran

With two thirds of Iran's population under the age of 25, sports constitutes a highly active portion of Iran's society, both traditional and modern. Iran hence was the birthplace of sports such as Polo,^[53] Backgammon,^[54] Varzesh-e Pahlavani, and even indigenous modern martial arts styles such as Shinzen Karate^[55] and Kan-zen-ryu.^[56] Tehran was futhermore the first city in the Middle East to host the Asian Games in 1974.

Today, the most popular sport of Iran is Football (soccer), with Iran being a World Cup finalist three times, and its national team among the football elite of Asia. Europe's major leagues continue to hire players from Iran's Premier Football League.

Iran is home to several unique skiing resorts,^[57] with the Tochal resort being the world's fifth-highest ski resort (at 3,730 m at its highest station) situated only 15 minutes away from Tehran. Being a mountainous country, Iran offers enthusiasts abundant challenges for hiking, rock climbing,^[58] and serious mountain climbing.^[59][60][61]

Iran's professional basketball league has hired players and coaches from the United States,^[62] irking many officials in Washington for interfering with its sanctions.^[63]

Women are primarily active in volleyball and badminton, but even in rallying, female drivers participate in national rally tournaments, such as Iran's successful female driver Laleh Seddigh.

Iranian art

Main article: Iranian art

The Iranian Cultural Continent - consiting of the modern nations Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, and surrounding regions - is home to one of the richest art heritages in world history and encompasses many disciplines including architecture, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking and stone masonry. The art of carpet weaving in Iran has its roots in the culture and customs of its people and their instinctive feelings. Weavers mix elegant patterns with a myriad of colors. The Iranian carpet is a re-enactment of the Persian garden: brimming with florae, birds, and beasts.

Architecture

Main article: Iranian architecture

The main building types of classical Iranian architecture are the mosque and the palace. Persian architecture display their extraordinary skills in making massive domes. Domes can be seen frequently in the structure of bazaars and mosques. Iranian domes are distinguished for their height, proportion of elements, beauty of form, and roundness of the dome stem. The outer surfaces of the domes are mostly mosaic faced, and create a magical view. The architecture makes use of abundant symbolic geometry. Persians were among the first to use mathematics, geometry, and astronomy in architecture.

Persian (Iranian) architecture left a profound influence on the architecture of old civilizations. Professor Arthur Pope wrote: Architecture in Iran has at least 6,000 years of continuous history, The supreme Iranian art, in the proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of architecture applies to both pre-and post-Islamic periods. examples of which can be seen from Syria to north India and Chinese borders, and from Caucasus to Zanzibar."Each of the periods of Elamites, Achaemenids, Parthians, and Sassanids were creators of great architecture that over the ages has spread wide and far to other cultures being adopted.

Iran ranks among the top 10 nations with the most architectural ruins from antiquity as recognized by UNESCO. Fifteen of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites are creations of Iranian architecture and the mausoleum of Maussollos was identified as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Poetry

Main article: Persian literature

See also: music of Iran and Persian miniature

So strong is the Persian aptitude for versifying everyday expressions that one can encounter poetry in almost every classical work, whether from Persian literature, science, or metaphysics. In short, the ability to write in verse form was a pre-requisite for any scholar. For example, almost half of Avicenna's medical writings are known to be versified. Persian poetry is recognized worldwide and have served as an inspiration for writers and poets around the World. Works of the early era of Persian poetry are characterized by strong court patronage, an extravagance of panegyrics, and what is known as سبک فاخر "exalted in style".

"Love’s nationality is separate from all other religions,
The lover’s religion and nationality is the Beloved (God).
The lover’s cause is separate from all other causes.
Love is the astrolabe of God’s mysteries".--Rumi^[64]

همه عالم تن است و ایران دل
نیست گوینده زین قیاس خجل
"Iran is the Heart and all the universe, The Body,
Of this claim, the poet feels no regret or humility." --Nizami

که ایران بهشت است یا بوستان
همی بوی مشک آید از دوستان
"Whether one thinks of Iran as Eden or Garden,
The smell of musk abounds there from friend and companion."--Ferdowsi

بنى آدم اعضاء يک پیکرند
که در آفرينش ز يک گوهرند
چو عضوى بدرد آورد روزگار
دگر عضوها را نماند قرار
"Of one Essence is the human race
thus has Creation put the base,
One Limb impacted is sufficient
For all Others to feel the Mace."--Saadi
^[65]

"Up from Earth's Centre through the Seventh Gate,
I rose and on the Throne of Saturn sate,
And many Knots unravel'd by the Road,
But not the Master-Knot of Human Fate".--Avicenna^[66]

Iran's historical contributions

From the Qanat to the Yakhchal, to the windmill, to the IMOD, Iran has reached scientific achievements and influenced world cultures for thousands of years. The Cyrus Cylinder remains "the world's oldest human rights declaration",^[67][68][69] and women today compose more than half of the incoming classes for universities around the country and increasingly continue to play pivotal roles in society. These women are the inheritors of a heritage in which women commanded armies, led administrations, ruled empires, ruled kingdoms, supported the arts, became heroes, and even served as deities in ancient beliefs.

The Sassanian era, encompassing the length of the Late Antiquity period, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran, and had a major impact on the world. Persia influenced Roman civilization considerably during Sassanian times,^[70] their cultural influence extending far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe,^[71] Africa,^[72] China and India^[73] and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art.^[74] This influence carried forward to the Islamic world. The dynasty's unique and aristocratic culture transformed the Islamic conquest and destruction of Iran into a Persian Renaissance.^[75] Most of what later became knows as Islamic learning, including philology, astronomy, literature, history, geography, jurisprudence, philosophy, medicine, architecture, art and the sciences were taken from the Sassanian Persians in to the broader Muslim world.^[76][77]

• Cyrus the great (founder of the Achaemenid Empire) authored the Cyrus Cylinder, considered to be the first declaration of human rights.^[80][81][82]
• The Cyropaedia influenced the American constitution and its founders such as Thomas Jefferson, in the field of Human Rights.^[83]
• Darius I built a canal between the Nile and the Red Sea around two thousand five hundred years ago, a forerunner of the modern Suez Canal.
• The Persian Royal Road, built by Darius I of Achaemenid Empire, was an ancient expressway in the 5th Century BC. Couriers could travel 1,677 miles (2,699 km) in seven days using the road.
• Darius I introduced Coinage, in the form of the daric (gold coin) and the shekel (silver coin) to the world.
• The principles of the European knighthood (heavily armoured cavalry) of the Middle Ages can be traced to the Sassanid Asawaran (Azatan) knightly caste, and the Clibanarii, with whom they share many similarities.

Scientific progress

Main article: Science in Iran

See also: Education in Iran and Higher education in Iran

Science in Iran, as the country itself, has a long history. Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of astronomy, nature, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. To mention just a few, Persians first invented Algebra, invented the wind mill and found medical uses of alcohol.

Iran strives to revive the golden age of Persian science. The country has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by China.^[84]

Despite the limitations in funds, facilities, and international collaborations, Iranian scientists remain highly productive in several experimental fields as pharmacology, pharmaceutical chemistry, organic chemistry, and polymer chemistry. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the Compact Muon Solenoid, a detector for CERN's Large Hadron Collider due to come online in 2007.

In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics is a UNESCO chair in biology,^[85] and in late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Rouyan research centre in Isfahan.^[86] Iranian scientists also introduced a drug that protects those already infected by HIV from the spread of AIDS by strengthening the immune system: "IMOD" was invented by Iranian scientists in 2006, by using nano technology.^[87]

The Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s. Iran's current facilities includes several research reactors, a uranium mine, an almost complete commercial nuclear reactor, and uranium processing facilities that include a uranium enrichment plant. Iran launched its first "space rocket" in 2007,^[88] which aimed at improving science and research for university students.^[89]

See also

Iran is the illll stuff.

References

Further reading

• Benjamin Walker, Persian Pageant: A Cultural History of Iran, Arya Press, Calcutta, 1950.
• Michael Barker, Catalyst for Iranian Resistance: US “democracy promoters” and regime change in Iran, Znet, 18 December 2006.

External links

Government

• Official website of the President of Iran
• The blog of the President of Iran
• (Persian) Official website of the Council of Guardians of Iran
• (Persian) Official website of the Majlis (Legislature) of Iran
• Official website of the Judiciary of Iran
• Official website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
• Official website of the Spokesman of the Government of Iran
• Official website of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran
• Official website of the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization
• (Persian) Official website of Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting

Other

• Iran travel guide from Wikitravel
• Slideshow: Iran, from Damavand to Ispahan
• The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS)
• Encyclopaedia Britannica's Country Page - "Iran"
• Open Directory Project - Iran directory category
• BBC News interactive maps detailing Iran's people, land and infrastructure
• Uncovering Iran season onBBC Radio 4
• Encyclopædia Iranica
• WikIran Encyclopedia
• Iran travel information and pictures
• Iran Cultural Heritage Organization

Iranian news and media

• List of Iranian news and media from the Open Directory Project
• Yahoo! News Full Coverage Iran Yahoo headline links
• Guardian section about Iran
• CAIS Archaeological and Cultural News