Riksmål
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Between 1907 and 1929, Riksmål was the name of one of the two official standards of written Norwegian.[1][2] The term Riksmål, meaning National Language, was first proposed by Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1899 as a name for the Norwegian variety of written Danish as well as spoken Dano-Norwegian. It was borrowed from Denmark where it denoted standard written and spoken Danish. An official spelling reform in 1907 brought the written language closer to spoken Dano-Norwegian as previously proposed by Knud Knudsen, and the name Riksmål was officially adopted for the new standard. A subsequent reform in 1917 closed the gap even further. In 1929, Riksmål was officially renamed Bokmål, which then underwent a major spelling reform in 1938.
Currently, Riksmål denotes the conservative, chiefly pre-1938, unofficial variant of Bokmål, which is still in use and is regulated by the Norwegian Academy for Language and Literature and promoted by the non-governmental organization Riksmålsforbundet. Riksmål has gone through some spelling reforms, but none as profound as the ones having shaped Bokmål. A Riksmål dictionary was published in four volumes in the period 1937 to 1957 by Riksmålsvernet, and two supplementary volumes were published in 1995 by the Norwegian Academy. There is considerable overlap between Riksmål and Bokmål. The difference between moderate versions is comparable to British vs. American English.
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[edit] History
Down to about 1300, the written language of Norway, Old Norse, was essentially identical to Old Icelandic. The speech, however, was gradually differentiated into local and regional dialects. As long as Norway remained an independent kingdom, the written language remained essentially constant.[1]
From about 1385, there was no longer an independent Norwegian king, and in 1397 the Union of Kalmar brought Norway, Sweden and Denmark into a personal union under the rule of Queen Margaret I of Denmark. Sweden revolted in 1521 and established independence in 1523. Norway remained part of the united Kingdoms of Denmark and Norway until 1814, progressively becoming the weaker member of the union. During this period written Norwegian was displaced by Danish, which was used for virtually all administrative documents.[1] [3]
In 1814, when Norway had been ceded from Denmark to the king of Sweden, Norway defied Sweden and her allies, declared independence and adopted a democratic constitution. Although compelled to submit to a dynastic union with Sweden, this spark of independence continued to burn, influencing the evolution of language in Norway. Old language traditions were revived by the patriotic poet Henrik Wergeland (1808-1845), who championed an independent non-Danish written language. [3] Haugen indicates that:
"Within the first generation of liberty, two solutions emerged and won adherents, one based on the speech of the upper class and one on that of the common people. The former called for Norwegianization of the Danish writing, the latter for a brand new start."[1]
The more conservative of the two language transitions was advanced by the work of writers like Peter Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe, schoolmaster and agitator for language reform Knud Knudsen, and Knudsen's famous disciple, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, as well as a more cautious Norwegianization by Henrik Ibsen. These served as the antecedents to Riksmål. [1] [4] |-)
[edit] Controversy
Following the 1907 reform, the Riksmålsforbundet was founded in order to promote Riksmål, and Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson became its first leader. The 1917 reform introduced some elements from Norwegian dialects into Riksmål as optional alternatives to traditional forms. This was part of an official policy to bring Bokmål and the other written standard Nynorsk closer together, intending eventually to merge them into one Common Norwegian (see Samnorsk). These changes met resistance from the Riksmål movement, and the Riksmålsvernet (To the Protection of Riksmål) was founded in 1919. The 1938 reform in Bokmål introduced more elements from Norwegian dialects and excluded traditional elements of Riksmål. The 1938 reform met even harder resistance from the Riksmål movement and many Riksmål/Bokmål users, topping in the 1950s under the leadership of Arnulf Øverland. The Riksmålsforbundet organized a parents' campaign against Samnorsk in 1951, and the Norwegian Academy for Language and Literature was founded in 1953. The 1938 reform in Bokmål was partially reverted in 1959, 1981, and 2005, but the Norwegian Academy still upholds its own standard.
[edit] Orthography reforms
The spelling reforms in 1907 and 1917 changed the spelling of the name Riksmål itself. Before 1907 it was identical to Danish, namely "Rigsmaal". In 1907 it became "Riksmaal", and in 1917 "å" was substituted for "aa", giving it the present spelling.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ a b c d e Haugen, Einar (1977). Norwegian English Dictionary. Unifersitetsforlaget, Oslo. ISBN 0-299-03874-2.
- ^ Lundeby, Einar (1966). Stortinget og språksaken. Kirke- og undervisningsdepartementet.
- ^ a b Gjerset, Knut (1915). History of the Norwegian People, Volumes I & II. The MacMillan Company. ISBN none.
- ^ Larson, Karen (1948). A History of Norway. Princeton University Press. ISBN none.
