Sudetenland
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Sudetenland (German; Sudety in Czech and Polish) was the name used in the first half of the 20th century for the regions inhabited mostly by Germans in the border areas of Bohemia, Moravia, and those parts of Silesia associated with Bohemia.
The name is derived from the Sudeten mountains, though the Sudetenland extended beyond these mountains. The German inhabitants were called Sudeten Germans (German: Sudetendeutsche, Czech: Sudetští Němci, Polish: Niemcy Sudeccy).
Politically, the territories belonged to the Austrian Empire until 1918, from 1918 to 1938 to Czechoslovakia, from 1938 to 1945 to Germany, from 1945 until 1993 again to Czechoslovakia and since 1993 to the Czech Republic. The term however has since fallen out of use subsequent to the expulsion of nearly the entire German population from Czechoslovakia in 1946.
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[edit] History of Sudetenland
Historically, the parts later known as Sudetenland, belonged to the regions of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. Since they did not form a single historical region, except in that they were united under the Bohemian crown, it is difficult to describe a distinct history of the Sudetenland apart from that of Bohemia and Moravia in general, until the advent of nationalism and the coining of the term in the 19th century.
[edit] Early origins and part of Austria
The regions later called Sudetenland were situated on the borders of the Kingdom of Bohemia, which also consisted of Moravia (and later Silesia) and was in turn part of the Holy Roman Empire. After the extinction of the Czech Přemyslid dynasty, the kingdom was ruled by the Luxemburgs, later the Jagiellonians and finally the Habsburgs. Already from the 13th century onwards the border regions of Bohemia and Moravia, called Sudetenland in the 20th century, were settled by Germans, who were invited by the originally Slavic Bohemian nobility.
The Habsburgs integrated the Kingdom of Bohemia and Moravia into their monarchy, of which it remained a part until the modern nationalism gained power in the 19th century: conflicts between Czech and German nationalists emerged, for instance in the Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas: while the German-speaking population wanted to participate in the building of a German nation state, the Czech-speaking population insisted on keeping Bohemia out of such plans.
[edit] Emergence of the term
In the wake of growing nationalism the name "Sudetendeutsche" (Sudeten Germans) emerged by the beginning of the 20th century, originally as part of a classification of three large groupings of Germans within the Austrian Empire, the "Alpendeutsche" (Alpine Germans) of what later became the Republic of Austria and the "Balkandeutsche" (Balkan Germans) in Hungary and the regions east of it. Of these three terms, only the term "Sudetendeutsche" survived because of the ethnic and cultural conflict within Bohemia.
[edit] Changes after World War I
After World War I, Austria-Hungary broke apart. Late in October 1918, an independent Czechoslovakian state, consisting of the lands of the Bohemian kingdom, was proclaimed. However, the German deputies of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia in the Imperial Parliament (Reichsrat) refused to adhere to the new state. Instead they proclaimed the union of the German-speaking territories with the new Republic of German Austria, which itself aimed at joining Germany. Four regional governmental units were established:
- German Bohemia (Deutschböhmen), the regions of northern and western Bohemia; proclaimed a constitutive state (Land) of the German-Austrian Republic with Reichenberg as capital, administered by a Landeshauptmann (state captain), consecutively: Rafael Pacher (1857-1936), 29 October - 6 November 1918, and Rudolf Ritter von Lodgman von Auen (1877 - 1962), 6 November - 16 December 1918 (the last principal city was conquered by the Czech army but he continued in exile, first at Zittau in Saxony and then in Vienna, until 24 September 1919)
- Province Sudetenland, the regions of northern Moravia and Austrian Silesia; proclaimed a constituent state of the German-Austrian Republic with Troppau as capital, governed by a Landeshauptmann: Robert Freissler (1877-1950), 30 October - 18 December 1918
- Bohemian Forest Region (Böhmerwaldgau), the region of Bohemian Forest/South Bohemia; proclaimed a district (Kreis) of the existing Austrian Land of Upper Austria; administered by Kreishauptmann (district captain): Friedrich Wichtl (1872 - 1922) from 30 October 1918
- German South Moravia (Deutschsüdmähren), proclaimed a District (Kreis) of the existing Austrian land Lower Austria, administered by a Kreishauptmann: Oskar Teufel (1880 - 1946) from 30 October 1918.
The U.S. commission to the Paris Peace conference made the following, unheeded, recommendations.[1]:
"To grant to the Czechoslovaks all the territory they demand would be not only an injustice to millions of people unwilling to come under Czech rule, but it would also be dangerous and perhaps fatal to the future of the new state ... the blood shed on March 3rd when Czech soldiers in several towns fired on German crowds ... was shed in a manner that is not easily forgiven... For the Bohemia of the future to contain within its limits great numbers of deeply discontented inhabitants who will have behind them across the border tens of millions of sympathizers of their own race will be a perilous experiment and one which can hardly promise success in the long run."
Several German minorities in Moravia, including German populations in Brno, Jihlava, and Olomouc also attempted to proclaim their union with German Austria but failed.
The Czechs thus rejected the aspirations of the Sudeten Germans and demanded the inclusion of the Sudetenland in their new state. The more than three million ethnic Germans, nearly a quarter of Czechoslovakia's population, felt deeply disappointed and were discriminated against by the Czech majority, and many continued to strive for a separation of the German inhabited regions.
The Treaty of Saint-Germain in 1919 affirmed the inclusion of the German-speaking territories within the new state of Czechoslovakia.
[edit] Within the Czechoslovak Republic (1918-1938)
According to the February 1921 census 3,123,000 Germans lived in all Czechoslovakia - 23.4% of the total population.
The controversies between the Czechs and the German minority (which was actually a majority in the Sudetenland areas) lingered on throughout the 1920s and intensified in the 1930s.
In the years of Great Depression the mostly mountainous regions populated by German minority - together with other peripheral regions in Czechoslovakia - were hurt by economic depression more than the inland. Unlike the underdeveloped regions (Ruthenia, Wallachia...) there was a high concentration of industry dependent on export (such as glass works, textile industry, paper-making and toy-making industry) and thus very vulnerable in the period of global depression. For example: 60% of the bijouterie and glass-making industry were located in Sudetenland, 69% of employees in this sector were Germans, 95% of bijouterie and 78% of other glass-ware were produced for export. Then the glass-making sector was affected by decreased spending power and also by protective measures in other countries and many German workers lost their work.[2]
The high unemployment made people more open to the populist and extremist movements (communism, fascism). In these years, the parties of German nationalists and later Sudetendeutsche Party (SdP) with its radical demands gained immense popularity among Germans in Czechoslovakia.
[edit] Sudeten Crisis and German annexation
After 1933, the Sudeten-German party (SdP) pursued a policy of escalation. Party leader Konrad Henlein had secretly formed a pact with the Nazi Party now ruling in Germany and would gradually increase his demands so that Hitler could reap the fruits of the conflict.
Immediately after the Anschluss of Austria into the Third Reich in March 1938, Hitler made himself the advocate of ethnic Germans living in Czechoslovakia, triggering the "Sudeten Crisis".
In August, UK Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, sent Lord Runciman, a faithful appeaser[3][4], to Czechoslovakia in order to see if he could obtain a settlement between the Czechoslovak government and the Germans in the Sudetenland. His mission failed because, on Hitler's command, Sudeten German Party refused all conciliating proposals.[5][6][7] Runciman reported the following to the British government[8]:
| “ | Czech officials and Czech police, speaking little or no German, were appointed in large numbers to purely German districts; Czech agricultural colonists were encouraged to settle on land confiscated under the Land Reform in the middle of German populations; for the children of these Czech invaders Czech schools were built on a large scale; there is a very general belief that Czech firms were favoured as against German firms in the allocation of State contracts and that the State provided work and relief for Czechs more readily than for Germans. I believe these complaints to be in the main justified. Even as late as the time of my Mission, I could find no readiness on the part of the Czechoslovak Government to remedy them on anything like an adequate scale ... the feeling among the Sudeten Germans until about three or four years ago was one of hopelessness. But the rise of Nazi Germany gave them new hope. I regard their turning for help towards their kinsmen and their eventual desire to join the Reich as a natural development in the circumstances. | ” |
The Nazis, together with their Sudeten German allies, demanded incorporation of the region into Nazi Germany to escape "oppression", in fact to destroy Czechoslovak state. While the Czechoslovakian government mobilized its troops, the Western powers urged it to comply with Germany believing that they could prevent or postpone a general war by appeasing Hitler.
British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain met with Adolf Hitler in Berchtesgaden on 15 September and agreed to the cession of the Sudetenland. Three days later, French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier did the same. No Czechoslovak representative was invited to these discussions.
Chamberlain met Hitler in Godesberg on September 22 to confirm the agreements. Hitler however, aiming at using the crisis as a pretext for war, now demanded not only the annexation of the Sudetenland but the immediate military occupation of the territories, giving the Czechoslovakian army no time to adapt their defence measures to the new borders. To achieve a solution, Italian prime minister Benito Mussolini suggested a conference of the major powers in Munich and on September 29, Hitler, Daladier and Chamberlain met and agreed to Mussolini's proposal (actually prepared by Hermann Göring) and signed the Munich Agreement accepting the immediate occupation of the Sudetenland. The Czechoslovak government, though not party to the talks, promised to abide by the agreement on September 30.
The Sudetenland was occupied by Germany between October 1 and October 10, 1938. This unification with the Third Reich was followed by the flight or expulsion of most of the region's Czech population to areas remaining within Czechoslovakia.
The remaining parts of Czechoslovakia were subsequently invaded and annexed by Germany in March 1939.
[edit] Sudetenland as the part of Nazi Germany
The Sudetenland was initially put under military administration, with General Wilhelm Keitel as Military governor. On 21 October 1938, the annexed territories were divided, with the southern parts being incorporated into the neighbouring Reichsgaue Oberdonau and Niederdonau.
The northern and western parts were reorganised as the Reichsgau Sudetenland, with the city of Reichenberg (present-day Liberec) established as its capital. Konrad Henlein (now openly a NSDAP member) administered the district first as Reichskommissar (until 1 May 1939) and then as Reichsstatthalter (1 May 1939–4 May 1945). Sudetenland consisted of three political districts: Eger (with Karlsbad as capital), Aussig (Aussig) and Troppau (Troppau).
Shortly after the annexation, the Jews living in the Sudetenland were widely persecuted. Only a few weeks after, the great pogrom called "Kristallnacht" occurred. As elsewhere in Germany, many synagogues were set on fire and many Jews were sent to concentration camps. In later years, the Nazis transported up to 300.000 Czech and Slovak Jews to concentration camps.[9] where 90% of them were killed or died. Jews and Czechs were not the only afflicted peoples; German Socialists, communists and pacifists were widely persecuted as well. The "Gleichschaltung" would damage permamently the community in the Sudetenland.
Despite this, on 4 December 1938 there were elections in Reichsgau Sudetenland, in which 97.32% of the adult population voted for NSDAP. About half million Sudeten Germans joined the Nazi Party which was 17.34% of the German population in Sudetenland (the average NSDAP participation in Nazi Germany was 7.85%). This means, the Sudetenland was the most "pro-Nazi" region in the Third Reich.[6] Because of their knowledge of the Czech language, many Sudeten Germans were employed in administration of Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia as well as in Nazi oppressive machinery (Gestapo, etc.). The most notable was Karl Hermann Frank: the SS and Police general and Secretary of State in the Protectorate.
[edit] Expulsions and resettlement after World War II
After the end of World War II, the Potsdam Conference in 1945 determined that Sudeten Germans would have to leave Czechoslovakia (see Expulsion of Germans after World War II). As a consequence of the immense hostility against all Germans that had grown within Czechoslovakia due to Nazi behavior, the overwhelming majority of Germans were expelled. (While the relevant Czechoslovak legislation provided for the remaining of those Germans that were able to prove their anti-Nazi affiliation, in many instances these provisions were not respected.) The number of expelled Germans in early phase (spring-summer 1945) is estimated to be around 500,000 people. This expulsions and forced resettlements were associated with excesses and even murders of Germans, e.g. during the Brno death march ("Brünner Todesmarsch", the forced march of some 20,000 German inhabitants of Brno toward the Austrian borders in the end of May 1945); there were circa 24,000 known deaths directly related to the expulsion (this includes murders as well as suicides or deaths of expellees from disease, old age, etc.). More than 62,000 German people were reported missing by relatives, but their deaths could not be verified. The property of practically all Sudeten Germans, claimed to be part of war reparations, was confiscated by Czechoslovakia pursuant to the Beneš decrees. During the organised phase in 1946, a total of 2,232,544 people were transferred to Germany: two-thirds of them to the American sector, and one-third to the Soviet sector (note: not all of the transferred were actual Germans, the number includes the non-German members of mixed families and renegades). Only about 244,000 Germans were allowed to remain in Czechoslovakia.
Many of the Germans who stayed in Czechoslovakia later emigrated to West Germany (more than 100,000). As the German population was transferred out the country, the former Sudetenland was resettled, mostly by Czechs but also by other nationalities of Czechoslovakia: Slovaks, Volhynian Czechs, Gypsies and Hungarians (though the Hungarians were forced into this and later returned home). Some areas remained depopulated for several strategic reasons (extensive mining, military interests etc.) or simply for their lack of attractions. There remained areas with noticeable German minorities only in the westernmost borderland. In the 2001 census, only approximately 40,000 people in the Czech Republic claimed German ethnicity. The term Sudetenland now has only a historical meaning, generally closely linked to its Nazi past.
[edit] Notes
- ^ Alfred de Zayas, "Anglo-American Responsibility for the Expulsion of the Germans, 1944-48", (Pittsburg lecture, published in Vardy/Tooley "Ethnic Cleansing in 20th Century Europe" pp. 239-254) p. 245
- ^ Kárník, Zdeněk. České země v éře první republiky (1918-1938). Díl 2. Praha 2002.
- ^ Churchill, Winston: The second world war. Vol. 1, The gathering storm. London 1948.
- ^ Kárník, Zdeněk: České země v éře první republiky (1918-1938). Díl 3. Praha 2003. (ISBN 8072770306)
- ^ Šamberger, Zdeněk: Mnichov 1938 v řeči archivních dokumentů. Praha 2002. (ISBN 8085475936)
- ^ a b Zimmermann, Volker: Die Sudetendeutschen im NS-Staat. Politik und Stimmung der Bevölkerung im Reichsgau Sudetenland (1938-1945). Essen 1999. (ISBN 3884747703)
- ^ Čelovský, Bořivoj: Germanisierung und Genozid. Hitlers Endlösung der tschechischen Frage - deutsche Dokumente 1933-1945. Dresden 2005. (ISBN 8090355013)
- ^ Alfred de Zayas, "Anglo-American Responsibility for the Expulsion of the Germans, 1944-48", (Pittsburg lecture, published in Vardy/Tooley "Ethnic Cleansing in 20th Century Europe" pp. 239-254) p. 243
- ^ Wheeler, Charles (2002-12-03). Czechs' hidden revenge against Germans (HTML, Blog). BBC News. Retrieved on September 26, 2006.
[edit] See also
- Germans in Czechoslovakia (1918-1938)
- German occupation of Czechoslovakia
- Expulsion of Germans after World War II
- Pursuit of Nazi collaborators in Czechoslovakia
[edit] Sources and references
- Czech-German Declaration
- Facing history – The evolution of Czech-German relations in the Czech provinces, 1848–1948: historical publication sponsored by Czech government; series of PDF files
- Ethnic cleansing in post World War II Czechoslovakia: the presidential decrees of Edward Benes, 1945-1948 Available as MS Word for Windows file.
- (German) Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft
- (German) Sudetendeutsches Archiv
- (German) Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft Bayern
- (German) Ackermann-Gemeinde
- sudetengermans.com
- Bell, P.M.H. The Origins of the Second World War in Europe. Addison Wesley Longman Ltd: London, 1997.
- (German) Westermann, Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte
- WorldStatesmen - Czech Republic; includes description of the 1918 Gaus
- Description of the expulsion, published by the group of expelees, 1951
- BBC 2002 article about Sudeten Germans
