摩門教手拉車拓荒者

维基百科，自由的百科全书

摩門教手拉車拓荒者是指一些將耶穌基督後期聖徒教會總會搬遷到猶他州鹽湖城的摩門教教徒，而由於部分搬遷者都使用手拉車來輸送行李而得其名。整個搬遷運動由1956年開始，至1960年才告結束。

由於教會當時欠缺足夠的經費去購買搬輸用的牛馬，接近三千名來自英格蘭、威爾斯和斯堪的那維亞的摩門教拓荒者只好分成十隊手拉車隊進行搬遷，徒步會合已經抵美的信徒。然而，途經懷俄明州中部的大風雪與惡劣天氣，對其中兩隊遲了出發、共九百八十人的手拉車隊伍構成嚴重的性命威脅。儘管當局已積極地進行搜救行動，仍然有多過二百一十人在遷徙途中喪生。其中一位生還者約翰·其斯里寫道：「無數父親在拉著載滿了孩子的手拉車，直到他們死的一天。」^[1]

儘管當時只有少於百分之十的移民使用手拉車來完成旅程，這種運輸工具卻成為了摩門教文化中一種十分重要的象徵，代表著拓荒世代的忠貞與自我犧牲的精神。今天在拓荒者日、教會慶典或者相類的紀念活動，這些已故的拓荒者依然受到熱烈追棒和表揚。而拓荒者的艱苦跋涉不但成為了19世紀摩門教民歌的流行主題，更用作一些宗教小說的寫作材料，例如吉羅德·露德的歷史故事《火之盟約》與奧森·斯科特·卡德的科幻短篇小說《麥穗的朋友》。

目录 1 移民潮的背景 2 手拉車隊的出現 3 裝備 4 首三隊之出發 5 災難之隊 5.1 災難與拯救過程 5.2 災難過後：孰是孰非？ 6 任務完成 7 傳統和文化遺產 7.1 重演西遷之旅 7.2 150週年紀念 8 參見 8.1 著名的手拉車拓荒者 8.2 著名的搜救者 9 參考文獻 10 注釋 11 外部連結

[编辑] 移民潮的背景

关于此话题更进一步的细节，參見摩門教拓荒者。

自1830年教會成立，早期的後期聖徒對現世社會都擺出一種不置可否的態度，再加上其信仰獨特，以致他們經常備受敵視。而後期聖徒人數日益俱增、教會有意成為選舉人團以獲取政治權力、自詡擁有神的恩寵，以及教徒多有多重的婚姻生活為當時大眾所恐懼，甚至演變出惡意的流血事件。^[2]針對教會與信眾的暴力行為迫使耶穌基督後期聖徒教會將總會由俄亥俄州大舉搬遷到密蘇里州，後來再遷至伊利諾州。儘管進行過多次的遷徙，摩門教徒仍然難以逃避反對的聲音。1838年密蘇里州長利爾本·柏格斯下達了「清剿令」，動用2500名國民軍強行將摩門教徒驅逐出州境。不幸的事接踵而來： 1844年總會會長小約瑟·斯密慘被槍殺，而位於伊利諾州西部城市納府的摩門教聖殿亦在兩年後遭受火劫。後來，斯密約瑟的繼任人楊百翰以神的指引去召集教友，並引領大眾往美國的西部進發。^[3]

[编辑] 手拉車隊的出現

在第一批摩門教拓者抵步猶他州不久以後，後期聖徒教會開始鼓勵居住於不列顛群島和歐洲其他地區的摩門教徒移民至該州。單單由1849年至1855年期間，便有大約16,000名信奉摩門教的歐洲僑民通過水路、鐵路以及當時普遍的牛拉車到達猶他州。雖然大部分的移民都是自費開支，但教會亦成立了「永久移民基金」，向貧窮的摩門移民提供經濟緩助。基金幫助窮苦移民購買西遷用的運輸工具，並以自願性的原則要求申請人在有能力的情況下才歸還借貸。教會也支持教友為基金作任何捐獻。^[4]

然而1855年猶他州農作物失收，令到永久移民基金所得的捐獻與貸款償還數量逐步減少。由於大部分留在歐洲的後期聖徒都過著頗為窮困的生活，楊百翰決定提議使用手拉車搬運，並相信藉此能夠加快整個移民過程。^[5]同年9月，楊去信當時的歐洲使團主席富蘭克林·D·理查斯提出建議。其後，信件在12月22日刊登於以英國為總部的教會期刊《千禧之星》，理查斯並親自撰寫報論支持計畫。新建議不但使遷徙所需的費用減少了三份之一，更在信徒間獲得極大的迴響：1856年永久移民基金令2,012歐洲僑民成功搬遷至美洲，相比去年的1,161名高出接近一半的人數。^[6]

[编辑] 裝備

移民一般都從英國的海港如利物浦出發，然後駛抵紐約或波士頓，再乘坐鐵路到達西面的總站愛荷華州愛荷華市。在那裡他們被分配手拉車與其它供應品。^[7]手拉車為按照楊百翰的設計，模仿一輛大型的獨輪手推車而製，並裝有兩個直徑5尺（1.5米）的車輪及闊尺（1.4米）的單軸，車身共重60磅〔27公斤〕。一個長7尺2.1米的上拉軸橫跨車底，兩邊末端皆以橫閂加以牢固。橫閂使使用者可以選擇推或拉車子。至於貨物則放到一個3尺乘4尺0.9米乘（1.2米），身厚8吋（0.2米）的盒子裡去。每一輛手拉車通常被放上高達250磅〔110公斤〕的行李和分配物，而最大的載貨量可高至500磅〔230公斤〕。移民潮第一年用的手拉車全由愛荷華州的山胡桃木或橡木製造；後來，加了金屬零件的手拉車則代替了舊有的設計，變得更堅固。^[8]

到步的教徒會事先編排至不同的手拉車隊，而每個車隊以手拉車與帳蓬的數目作為量度單位。每五個人可獲配一輛手拉車，每人亦同時得到17磅〔7.7公斤〕的衣物和被褥。每個帳蓬均由一支支撐竿承拓重量，可容納二十人就寢休息，並有一個帳蓬隊長看守。而每五個帳蓬則有一個百人隊長管理（或「副隊長」）。一百人的食糧用公牛拉的運貨車搬運，並由帳蓬隊長分配給大家。^[9]

[编辑] 首三隊之出發

頭兩艘船分別在三月下旬和四月中旬由英格蘭出航至波士頓。移民們在愛荷華市花了數周的時間來建造他們的手拉車以及補供物資，以備將來的1300哩(2093公里)長的旅途之需。^[10]

從前兩艘船中，大約有815位移民被組織到首三對手拉車隊中^[11]。這三隊由益文·艾爾斯渥茲、丹尼爾·D·麥亞瑟和愛德華·賓架隊長領導。這些隊長們都是摩門教傳教士，正要回到他們在猶他的家，也熟悉這個路程。大部分的副隊長們也都是返鄉傳教士^[12]。

他們沿著現存275英里（443公里）長的道路橫越愛荷華一帶，到達愛荷華州西南部城市康瑟爾布拉夫斯，然後再跟隨一條大致沿今天的美國六號公路的路徑。在跨越密蘇里河後，他們在冬季營（Winter Quater）（在今日美國內布拉斯加州的奧馬哈）一個摩門教較偏遠的前哨站休息。整理了數日後，移民隊伍再踏上了1030英里（1658公里）的路程，即今日所稱的摩門小徑，往鹽湖城前進。^[13]

這支隊伍行程順利，他們的旅程並沒有重大事件發生。移民隊伍中包括許多小孩和老人，而推拉手拉車的確是件辛苦的工作。一些日記和回憶錄中描述了當時信眾的病痛和飢餓。就像後來其他橫渡這條移民路上的隊伍一樣，行程當中也有人死亡。在哈芬夫婦的《往錫安的手拉車》就列出了第一隊死了13個人，第二隊7個，第三隊少於7個。但是日記紀錄中則反映出手拉車拓荒者的心態樂觀：^[14]。

儘管拉車沿途屢遭他人冷嘲熱諷，天氣還是風和日麗，路依然是很好走。雖然我現在身體抱恙，一行人又筋疲力盡至夜，但我們總以為那是直走到錫安的光榮之路。

前兩隊隊伍最後於9月26日抵達鹽湖城，而第三隊則在兩個星期後到步。這首三隊隊伍被認為顯示出使用手拉車移民的可行性。^[15]

手拉車隊伍	隊長	船	抵達愛荷華市日期	離開愛荷華市日期	離開內布拉斯加州佛羅倫斯日期	隊伍人數	路程中死亡人數	抵達鹽湖城日期
第一隊[16]	益文·艾爾斯渥茲	以諾火車號，1856年3月23日駛往波士頓	5月12日	6月9日	7月20日	274	13	9月26日
第二隊	丹尼爾·D·麥亞瑟	以諾火車號，1856年3月23日駛往波士頓； S·卡靈號，1856年4月19日駛往波士頓	以諾火車號的乘客－５月12日； S·卡靈號的乘客–6月初	6月11日	7月24日	221	7	9月26日
第三隊 (威爾斯)	愛德華·賓架	S·卡靈號，1856年3月23日駛往波士頓	6月初	6月11日	7月24日	320	少於7	10月2日

[编辑] 災難之隊

在1856年的最後兩隊手拉車隊從英格蘭出發的時候已經晚了。這艘名為「湯頓號」的船載滿了將會成為威利隊的移民。他們直到5月4日才離開英格蘭。過了三個星期後另外一艘名為「地平號」的船才載滿了將會成為馬丁隊的移民才出航。出發時間延後的原因可能是在因為沒有預期到的大量移民需求而造成在取得船位的困難。延後出發的結果卻是悲慘。^[17]

在還沒有橫跨大西洋的電報系統以前，在愛荷華市的摩門教教會專員們並不知道這些新增移民會來到，並且在他們來到的時候才忙亂地準備。這關鍵性的幾個星期花在匆促地組合手拉車和裝備隊伍上面。當手拉車隊來到佛羅倫斯的時候，額外的時間又花在修理這些臨時組合的手拉車上面^[18]。移民約翰·其斯里描述了手拉車的問題：^[19]

那些車軸跟車廂，全都是木製的。無論我們如何拂拭，也阻不了木頭被路上的塵埃侵蝕，再加上 the extra weight put on the carts, had the effect of breaking the axles at the shoulder. All kinds of expedients were resorted to as remedies for the growing evil, but with variable success. Some wrapped their axles with leather obtained from bootlegs; others with tin, obtained by sacrificing tin-plates, kettles, or buckets from their mess outfit. Besides these inconveniences, there was felt a great lack of a proper lubricator. Of anything suitable for this purpose we had none at all.

Prior to the Willie Company departing Florence, the company met to debate the wisdom of such a late departure. Because the emigrants were unfamiliar with the trail and the climate, they deferred to the returning missionaries and Church agents. One of the returning missionaries, Levi Savage, urged them to spend the winter in Nebraska. He argued that such a late departure with a company consisting of the elderly, women and young children would lead to suffering, sickness and even death. All of the other Church elders, however, argued that the trip should go forward, expressing optimism that the company would be protected by divine intervention. Some members of the company, perhaps as many as 100, decided to spend the winter in Florence or in Iowa, but the majority, about 404 in number (including Savage) continued the journey west. The Willie Company left Florence on August 17 and the Martin Company left on August 27. Two ox-and-wagon trains, led by captains W.B. Hodgett and John A. Hunt, followed behind the Martin Company.^[20]

Near Wood River, Nebraska, a herd of bison caused the Willie Company's cattle to stampede, and nearly 30 cattle were lost. Left without enough cattle to pull all of the wagons, each handcart was required to take on an additional 100 pounds (45 kg) of flour.^[21]

In early September, Franklin D. Richards, returning from Europe where he had served as the Church's mission president, passed the emigrant companies. Richards and the 12 returning missionaries who accompanied him, traveling in carriages and light wagons pulled by horses and mules, pressed on to Utah to obtain assistance for the emigrants.^[22]

[编辑] 災難與拯救過程

In early October the two companies reached Fort Laramie, Wyoming, where they expected to be restocked with provisions, but no provisions were there for them. The companies had to cut back food rations, hoping that their supplies would last until help could be sent from Utah. To lighten their loads, the Martin Company cut the luggage allowance to 10 pounds (4.5 kg) per person, discarding clothing and blankets that soon would be desperately needed.^[23]

On October 4 the Richards party reached Salt Lake City and conferred with president Brigham Young and other Church leaders. The next morning the Church was meeting in a general conference, where Young and the other speakers called on the Church members to provide wagons, mules, supplies, and teamsters for a rescue mission. On the morning of October 7 the first rescue party left Salt Lake City with 16 wagonloads of food and supplies, pulled by 4-mule teams and 27 young men serving as teamsters and rescuers. The party elected George D. Grant as their captain. Throughout October more wagon trains were assembled, and by the end of the month 250 relief wagons were on the road.^[24]

Meanwhile, the Willie and Martin companies were running out of food and encountering bitterly cold temperatures. On October 19 a blizzard struck the region, halting the two companies and the relief party. The Willie Company was along the Sweetwater River approaching the Continental Divide. A scouting party sent ahead by the main rescue party found and greeted the emigrants, gave them a small amount of flour, encouraged them that rescue was near, and then rushed onward to try to locate the Martin Company.^[25] The members of the Willie Company had just reached the end of their flour supplies. They began slaughtering the handful of broken-down cattle that still remained while their death toll mounted. On October 20 Captain Willie and Joseph Elder went ahead by mule through the snow to locate the supply train and inform them of the company's desperate situation. They arrived at the rescue party's campsite near South Pass that evening, and by the next evening the rescue party reached the Willie Company and provided them with food and assistance. Half of the rescue party remained to assist the Willie Company while the other half pressed forward to assist the Martin Company. The difficulties of the Willie Company were not yet over. On October 23, the second day after the main rescue party had arrived, the Willie Company faced the most difficult section of the trail—the ascent up Rocky Ridge. The climb took place during a howling snowstorm through knee-deep snow. That night 13 emigrants died.^[26]

On October 19, the Martin Company was about 110 miles (177 km) further east, making its last crossing of the North Platte River near present-day Casper, Wyoming.^[27] Shortly after completing the crossing, the blizzard struck. Many members of the Martin Company suffered from hypothermia or frostbite after wading through the frigid river. They set up camp at Red Bluffs, unable to continue forward through the snow. Meanwhile the original scouting party continued eastward until it reached a small vacant fort at Devil's Gate, where they had been instructed to wait for the rest of the rescue party if they had not found the Martin Company. When the main rescue party rejoined them, another scouting party consisting of Joseph A. Young, Abel Garr, and Daniel Webster Jones was sent forward. The Martin company remained in their camp at Red Bluffs for 9 days until the three scouts finally arrived on October 28. By the time the scouts arrived, 56 members of the company had died. The scouts urged the emigrants to begin moving again. Three days later the main rescue party met the Martin Company and the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies and helped them on to Devil's Gate.^[28]

George D. Grant, who headed the rescue party, reported to President Young:^[29]

It is not of much use for me to attempt to give a description of the situation of these people, for this you will learn from [others]; but you can imagine between five and six hundred men, women and children, worn down by drawing hand carts through snow and mud; fainting by the wayside; falling, chilled by the cold; children crying, their limbs stiffened by cold, their feet bleeding and some of them bare to snow and frost. The sight is almost too much for the stoutest of us; but we go on doing all we can, not doubting nor despairing.

At Devil's Gate the rescue party unloaded the baggage carried in the wagons of the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies that had been following the Martin Company so the wagons could be used to transport the weakest emigrants. A small group remained at Devil's Gate over the winter to protect the property. On November 4 the company had to cross the Sweetwater River, which was about 2 feet (0.6 m) deep and 90 to 120 feet (27 to 37 m) wide. The stream was clogged with floating ice. The young men of the rescue party (accounts specifically mention George W. Grant, C. Allen Huntington, David P. Kimball, and Stephen W. Taylor) spent much of the day pulling the carts and carrying many of the emigrants across the river. Andrew Jensen later stated that some of the young rescuers died at early ages from the effects of the exposure.^[30] The severe weather forced the Martin Company to halt for another five days at Martin's Cove, a few miles west of Devil's Gate.^[31]

The rescue parties escorted the emigrants from both companies to Utah through more snow and severe weather while their members continued to suffer death from disease and exposure. The Willie Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 9; 68 members of the company had lost their lives.^[32]

Meanwhile, a backup relief party of 77 teams and wagons was making its way east to provide additional assistance to the Martin Company. After passing Fort Bridger the leaders of the backup party concluded that the Martin Company must have wintered east of the Rockies, so they turned back. When word of the returning backup relief party was communicated to Young, he ordered the courier to return and tell them to turn back east and continue until they found the handcart company, but several days had been lost. On November 18 the backup party met the Martin Company with the greatly needed supplies. At last all the members of the handcart party were now able to ride in wagons. The 104 wagons carrying the Martin Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 30; at least 145 members of the handcart company had lost their lives. Many of the survivors had to have fingers, toes, or limbs amputated due to severe frostbite.^[33]

After the companies arrived in Utah, the residents generously opened their homes to the arriving emigrants, feeding and caring for them over the winter. The emigrants would eventually go on to Latter-day Saint settlements throughout Utah and the West.^[34]

[编辑] 災難過後：孰是孰非？

American West historian, Wallace Stegner, described the inadequate planning and improvident decisions leading to the tragedy when he wrote,^[35]

In urging the method upon Europe's poor, Brigham and the priesthood would over-reach themselves; in shepherding them from Liverpool to the valley, the ordinarily reliable missionary and emigration organization would break down at several critical points; in accepting the assurances of their leaders and the wishful importunities of their own hope, the emigrants would commit themselves to greater sacrifices than even the Nauvoo refugees; and in rallying from compound fatal error to bring the survivors in, the priesthood and the people of Mormondom would show themselves at their compassionate and efficient best.

As early as November 2 1856, while the Willie and Martin companies were still making their way to safety, Brigham Young responded to criticism of his own leadership by rebuking Franklin Richards and Daniel Spencer for allowing the companies to leave so late.^[36] Stegner described Richards as a scapegoat for Young's fundamental errors in planning, though Howard Christy, professor emeritus at Brigham Young University, noted that Richards, as the highest ranking official in Florence, Nebraska area, was, in fact, the official who would have had the authority and capability to have averted the tragedy by halting their late departure.^[37]

Many survivors of the tragedy refused to blame anyone. Survivor John Jacques wrote, "I blame nobody. I am not anxious to blame anybody... I have no doubt that those who had to do with its management meant well and tried to do the best they could under the circumstances."^[38] Another survivor, Francis Webster, was quoted as having said, "Was I sorry that I chose to come by hand cart? No. Neither then nor any minute of my life since. The price we paid to become acquainted with God was a privilege to pay and I am thankful that I was privileged to come in the Martin Hand Cart Company."^[39] On the other hand, survivor John Chislett, who later left the Church, wrote bitterly of Richards promising them that "we should get to Zion in safety."^[40]

In May 2006, a panel of researchers at the annual conference of the Mormon History Association blamed the tragedy on a failure of leadership. Lyndia Carter, a trails historian, said Franklin D. Richards "was responsible, in my mind, for the late departure" because "he started the snowball down the slope" that eventually "added up to disaster." Christy agreed that "leadership from the top, from the outset, was seriously short of the mark." Robert Briggs, an attorney, said "It's almost a foregone conclusion . . . there is evidence of negligence. With leaders all the way up to Brigham Young, there was mismanagement."^[41] On the other hand, Rebecca Bartholomew and Leonard J. Arrington wrote, "Memories of what was perhaps the worst disaster in the history of western migration have been palliated by what could also be regarded as the most heroic rescue of the Mormon frontier."^[42]

手拉車隊伍	隊長	船	抵達愛荷華市日期	離開愛荷華市日期	離開內布拉斯加州佛羅倫斯日期	隊伍人數	路程中死亡人數	抵達鹽湖城日期
第四队(Willie)[43]	James G. Willie	Thornton，1856年5月4日駛往纽约	6月26日	7月15日	8月17日	500人离开爱荷华，404人离开佛罗伦斯	68	11月9日
第五队(马丁)	Edward Martin	Horizon號，1856年5月25日駛往波士頓	7月8日	7月28日	8月27日	576	>145	11月30日

[编辑] 任務完成

A number of lessons had been learned from the 1856 disaster that allowed the Church to continue the handcart system while avoiding another disaster. Never again would a handcart company depart Florence later than July 7. The construction of the handcarts was modified to strengthen them and reduce repairs. The handcarts would now be regularly greased. Arrangements were made to replenish supplies along the route.^[44]

By 1857 the Perpetual Emigration Fund was exhausted; almost all of the handcart emigrants that year and in subsequent years would have to pay their own way. With the increased cost, the number of handcart emigrants dropped from nearly 2,000 in 1856 to about 480 in 1857.^[45] Nevertheless, in 1857 two companies made the trek. Both companies arrived in Salt Lake City by September 13. Perhaps the most notable incident was when a captain of the U.S. Army's Utah Expedition, on its way to Utah to confront Young and the Latter-day Saints, donated an ox to the hungry emigrants.^[46]

With the uncertainty caused by the Utah War, the Church called off all European emigration for 1858. In 1859 one handcart company crossed the plains. The emigrants were now able to travel by rail to Saint Joseph, Missouri, after which they went by riverboat to Florence where they were outfitted with handcarts and supplies. When the 1859 company reached Fort Laramie, they discovered their food was running dangerously short, so they cut back on rations. When they reached Devil's Gate the last flour was distributed. Emigrant Ebeneezer B. Beesley recalled an incident in which a group of rough mountain men fed the hungry emigrants. One of the mountain men then asked a young woman from the company to stay with him, which the tired woman agreed to do. (William Atkin recalled another version of the story in which two young women married two mountain men.)^[47] The hunger worsened when expected supplies were not available when they reached the Green River. Three days later wagons from Utah carrying provisions finally rescued the famished emigrants.^[48]

The last two handcart companies made the journey in 1860, again following the route through St. Joseph. Although the journey continued to be difficult for the emigrants, these companies had relatively uneventful trips and experienced little loss of life.^[49]

After 1860 handcarts were no longer used. The Church implemented a new system of emigration, in which wagon trains would travel east from Salt Lake City in the spring and return with emigrants in the summer. While the transcontinental railroad was being constructed, the railroad terminus gradually moved westward, shortening the trip.^[50]

手拉车队伍	队长	船	抵达爱荷华时间	离开爱荷华时间	离开佛罗伦斯时间	总人数	死亡人数	抵达盐湖城人数
第六队	Israel Evans	乔治·华盛顿号, 1857年 3月7日开往波士顿	4月30日	5月22日	6月20日	149	未知(>0)	9月11日
第七队(斯堪地那维亚人)	Christian Christiansen	L.N. Hvidt号 1857年4月18日自哥本哈根开往英国，“Westmoreland”号 4月25日开往费城	6月9日	6月13日	7月7日	约330	约6	9月13人
第八队	George Rowley	“William Tapscott”号1859年4月11日开往纽约	-	-	6月9日	235	约5	9月4日
第九队	Daniel Robinson	“Underwriter”号 1860年3月30日开往纽约	[5月12日]] (佛罗伦斯)	-	6月6日	233	1	8月27日
第十队	Oscar O. Stoddard	“William Tapscott”号1860年5月11日开往纽约	6月1日(佛罗伦斯)	-	7月6日	124	0	9月24日

[编辑] 傳統和文化遺產

Handcart pioneers and the handcart movement are important parts of LDS culture, music and fictional writings. Arthur King Peters described the importance of this part of Mormon history in Seven Trails West:^[51]

This heroic episode of Mormon history exemplifies many of the enduring qualities of nascent Mormonism itself: thorough organization, iron discipline, unswerving devotion to a cause, and limitless self-sacrifice. . . . The true Mormon Trail was not on the prairie but in the spirit.

Wallace Stegner also praised the examples of those of the handcart companies, particularly in comparison to other pioneer parties:^[52]

Perhaps their suffering seems less dramatic because the handcart pioneers bore it meekly, praising God, instead of fighting for life with the ferocity of animals and eating their dead to keep their own life beating, as both the Fremont and Donner parties did. . . . But if courage and endurance make a story, if humankindness and helpfulness and brotherly love in the midst of raw horror are worth recording, this half-forgotten episode of the Mormon migration is one of the great tales of the West and of America.

[编辑] 重演西遷之旅

Reenactments, in which a group dressed in 19th-century garb travels for one or more days pushing and pulling handcarts, have become a popular activity among LDS wards, youth groups, and families.^[53] The reenactments have been lauded by LDS leaders; for example, M. Russell Ballard of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles said, "Through music, drama, and stirring reenactments, we will be reminded of incredible pioneer journeys, both temporal and spiritual."^[54] The reenactments have become so popular that the Bureau of Land Management is studying the impact on the trail and its environment, especially in the area around Rocky Ridge, Wyoming.^[55] According to the Casper Star-Tribune, the BLM has had to impose a fee to offset the costs of monitoring the impacts of reenactors and other campers on the trail.^[56]

A re-creation of the 1856 handcart disaster was also featured on the History Channel show, Wild West Tech.^[57]

[编辑] 150週年紀念

A number of events have been held or are scheduled to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the 1856 handcart companies:

• The 2006 conference of the Mormon History Association was held in Casper, Wyoming from May 25–May 28 and featured a specially commissioned concert opera by Harriet Petherick Bushman, "1856: Long Walk Home," as well as several research papers on the handcart trek.^[58]
• From June 9–June 11, a symposium and festival were held in Iowa City on the anniversary of the departure of the first company. Gordon B. Hinckley, the current President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, spoke at the closing ceremony fireside.^[59]
• A musical called 1856, produced by Cory Ellsworth, a descendant of Edmund Ellsworth, was performed in Mesa, Arizona and Salt Lake City in July 2006.^[60]
• Filmmaker Lee Groberg and writer/historian Heidi Swinton have created a documentary for PBS, Sweetwater Rescue: The Willie & Martin Handcart Story, which features reenactments of the rescue. The one-hour film is scheduled to air nationally in the United States on December 18 2006. A companion book has also been published.^[61]
• Brigham Young University has created a daily journal of the Willie Handcart Company on its Web site.^[62]

[编辑] 參見

• 馬丁灣
• 摩門教拓荒者
• 摩門小徑
• 猶他州歷史
• 耶穌基督後期聖徒教會歷史
• 後期聖徒運動歷史

[编辑] 著名的手拉車拓荒者

• C.C.A. Christensen – Sub-captain of the seventh company and an artist known for his illustrations of LDS history.^[63]
• Levi Savage Jr. – Sub-captain of the Willie Company who argued against the late departure.^[64]
• Nellie Unthank – Member of the Martin Company.^[65]

[编辑] 著名的搜救者

• Ephraim Hanks – Scout, member of the second rescue party.^[66]
• Daniel Webster Jones – Member of advance party who found the Martin Company. Jones spent the winter at Devil's Gate guarding the equipment that was left there.^[67]
• Hosea Stout – Member of the second rescue party who carried messages to and from Salt Lake City.^[68]

[编辑] 參考文獻

• Allen，James B.; Glen M. Leonard (1976). The Story of the Latter-day Saints，Deseret Book Company（德撒律書局）. ISBN 0-87747-594-6.
• Bartholomew，Rebecca; Leonard J. Arrington (1993). Rescue of the 1856 Handcart Companies，Signature Books. ISBN 0-941214-04-4.
• Christy，Howard A. (1992). "Handcart Companies"， Daniel H. Ludlow (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Mormonism, Vol 2，Macmillan Publishing Company. ISBN 0-02-904040-X.
• Christy, Howard A. (1997). "Weather, Disaster and Responsibility: An Essay on the Willie and Martin Handcart Story". BYU Studies 37 (1): 6–74.

• Dekker, Linda (July 2006). "Some Must Push and Some Must Pull". 旌旗 36 (7): 38-47.

• Jones，Daniel W. (1890). Forty Years Among the Indians: A True Yet Thrilling Narrative of the Author's Experiences Among the Natives，Juvenile Instructor Office.
• Hafen，LeRoy R.; Ann W. Hafen [1960] (1981). Handcarts to Zion: the story of a unique western migration, 1856–1860: with contemporary journals, accounts, reports and rosters of members of the ten handcart companies，Arthur H. Clark Company. ISBN 0-87062-027-4.
• Kimball，Stanley B. (1979). Discovering Mormon Trails，Deseret Book Company（德撒律書局）. ISBN 0-87747-756-5.
• Lyman，Paul D. (2006). The Willie Handcart Company: Their Day-by-Day Experiences, Including Trail Maps and Driving Directions，BYU Studies Books.
• O'Dea，Thomas F. (1957). The Mormons，芝加哥: 芝加哥大學出版社. ISBN 0-226-61743-2.
• Olsen，Andrew D. (2006). The Price We Paid: The Extraordinary Story of the Willie and Martin Handcart Pioneers，Deseret Book Company（德撒律書局）. ISBN 1590386248.
• Peters，Arthur King (1996). Seven Trails West，Abbeville Press. ISBN 1-55859-782-4.
• Slaughter，William; Michael Landon (1997). Trail of Hope: The Story of the Mormon Trail，美國鹽湖城: Deseret Book Company（德撒律書局）. ISBN 1-57345-251-3.
• Stegner，Wallace (1956). Ordeal by Handcart，Collier's Publishing.
• Stegner，Wallace (1992). The Gathering of Zion，內布拉斯加大學出版社. ISBN 0-935704-12-4.
• Swinton，Heidi S.; Lee Groberg (2006). Sweetwater Rescue: The Willie and Martin Handcart Story，Covenant Communications（聖約通訊）. ISBN 978-1-59811-172-9.

[编辑] 注釋

[编辑] 外部連結

• Sweetwater Rescue – information site for Sweetwater Rescue: The Willie & Martin Handcart Story, PBS documentary（英文）
• Groberg Communications – site of Lee Groberg, producer and director of Sweetwater Rescue（英文）
• Norman Bosworth photos – for Sweetwater Rescue（英文）
• Handcart construction plans（英文）
• Commemoration of 150th anniversary（英文）
• 1856, the musical（英文）
• The Pioneer Story: Handcart Beginning（英文）
• American Westward Migration: – online diaries scanned from original Mormon pioneers of the 1850s（英文）
• www.handcart.com – stories compiled by the Riverton Wyoming Stake of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints（英文）
• Willie Handcart Company Chronology at BYU.edu – a day-by-day chronology of the Willie Company's journey from Liverpool to Salt Lake City（英文）