義大利文藝復興

维基百科，自由的百科全书

義大利文藝復興(英文：Italian Renaissance) 開創了早期的文藝復興時代，即從14世紀末期到大約1600年之間，一個具有文化上重大改變與成就的時代。雖然它的起源可以追溯到14世紀早期，義大利文化裡的許多面向大致都是中世紀的，而且文藝復興一直要到這個世紀結束時才整個呈現出來。Renaissance 這個詞 (義大利文：rinascimento﹞ 的字面意思是「重生」 (英文：rebirth)，而這個時代最為人熟之的是，在被文藝復興人文學者偁為黑暗時代之後，重新對古典的古代 (classical antiquity) 的文化產生興趣。這些改變雖然很有意義，卻集中在菁英階層，絶大多數的人民生活跟中世紀比較起來，幾乎沒有什麼改變。

義大利文藝復興從義大利北部開始，集中在佛羅倫斯 (英文：Florence)。它接著往南傳佈，對羅馬的影響尤其大，而羅馬大致上是被文藝復興教宗們重建的。義大利文藝復興的在15世紀晚期達到全盛時期，當時外國入侵使整個地區陷入混亂。但是，文藝復興的想法跟理想散佈到歐洲其他地方，開啟了北方文藝復興與英國文藝復興。

義大利文藝復興最為人熟知的是文化方面的成就，包括彼特拉克，伽斯底裡奧內 (Castiglione)，和馬基亞維利的文學作品，藝術家米開朗基羅和達文西，還有偉大的建築物，如佛羅倫斯的 The Duomo 和羅馬的聖伯多祿大殿。

目录 1 起源 1.1 中世紀後期的北義大利 1.2 歐洲經濟 1.3 十四世紀的崩潰 2 發展 2.1 國際關係 2.2 梅第奇家族統治下的佛羅倫斯 2.3 文藝復興的傳播 2.4 一般大眾 2.5 義大利文藝復興的結束 3 文化 3.1 文學與詩 3.2 科學與哲學 3.3 雕塑、繪畫與建築 3.4 音樂 4 註腳 5 參考書目 6 References

[编辑] 起源

[编辑] 中世紀後期的北義大利

在中世紀進入後期之前，曾經是羅馬帝國中心地帶的義大利中部與南部，已經變得比北部遠為貧窮。羅馬城此時大部分為廢墟，而教皇國則是一個缺乏紀律的鬆散統治區域。教宗權移動到到法國的亞維農，部分原因也是這個。有段期間那不勒斯、西西里、薩丁尼亞被外國統治。

義大利北部則繁榮多了，有些城邦還是當時歐洲最富裕的國家。十字軍東征造成通到黎凡特 (Levant) 的長久商業連繫，而且第四次十字軍東征對拜占庭帝國作為義大利商業對手的傷害性很大。主要貿易路線從東邊經過拜占庭帝國或阿拉伯而至熱那亞、比薩和威尼斯。在黎凡特購買到的奢侈品，例如香料、染料、絲織品，被進口到義大利，然後轉賣到歐洲各地。而且，這些內陸城邦受益於波河河谷的肥沃農地。從法國，德國，低地國家，陸路與海運貿易路線把羊毛，小麥，和貴重金屬之類的物品帶入這個地區。從埃及延伸到波羅的海龐大貿易使這些城邦有足夠的盈餘投資在礦業和建築上。因此，雖然義大利北部在資源上比歐洲其他地方還要少，卻能夠達到很高的發展水平。佛羅倫斯因為織品商業而變成北義大利最富裕的城市之一。羊毛從北歐和西班牙進口，^[1] 來自東方的染料則用來作高級衣料。

義大利商隊的貿易路線覆蓋地中海地區並且向外延伸，這也是他們文化和知識交流的主要渠道。義大利的一部分文明也來自於君士坦丁堡，剛剛接受基督教的西班牙和保存了上古時期 (the classical era) 知識的阿拉伯地區。十字軍東征引領歐洲人開始接觸古典事物, preserved by Arabs, but more important in this regard was the Spanish Reconquista of the fifteenth century and the resulting translations of Arabic-language works by the Arabists of the School of Salamanca. 阿拉伯的科學，哲學和數學的思想也從埃及，地中海東部地區傳入了義大利北部。北部地方也正與羅馬帝國殘留的文明接壤，如果搜尋的足夠耐心的話，還會發現遠古時期的手稿，建築學的原理和一些藝術形式。

[编辑] 歐洲經濟

在13世紀，歐洲普遍經濟繁榮。部份義大利境內的商業與漢撒同盟聯合成為一個共同的歐洲經濟體。北部的城邦在這個時期迅速擴展，勢力漸增，實際上已經脫離神聖羅馬帝國的管轄。在這段期間內，現代商業基礎萌芽，出現共同股票公司(joint stock market)以及國際銀行體制(international banking system)，這種體制是有組織地與外地交易，另外也出現了保險及政府公債(government debt)。 [2] 佛羅倫斯成為歐洲銀行業的中心，而且佛羅倫斯使用的佛羅令（Florin）變成了國際貿易實際上的通用貨幣。 如此產生了一批透過經濟手段來得到地位的新貴族階級，顛覆了長久以來歐洲中世紀的封建制度。義大利北部，除了米蘭附近地區以外，一直不像歐洲其他地區那麼封建化。這地區絕大多數的地主、貴族勢力都比大主教(urban patriarchs)低，而商業貿易的興起使得此情形與日俱增，促進了早期文藝復興的發展。封建主義的衰微和城市的興起互香影響對方；舉例說，奢侈品的需求帶動了貿易的增長，有許多的商人就由於貿易的增長而變得愈加富有，然後，由於富有，對奢侈品的需求愈加強烈。這樣的轉變使得商人富可敵國，甚至有能力支配義大利北部的政府，進一步擴展貿易。最重要的影響是降低貿易的風險。封建體制下，家財萬貫的商人常常與專制的地主發生衝突，土地充公，著名的例子如發生在法國的 Jacques Coeur 。某些北部地區仍保有中世紀的法律，這些法律阻礙貿易，例如禁止高利貸，或是只能與天主教徒(Christian)作生意等等。在其他北義大利的城邦，這些法律都被撤銷，重新訂定。

[编辑] 十四世紀的崩潰

The fourteenth century saw a series of catastrophes that caused the European economy to go into recession. The Medieval Warm Period was ending as the transition to the Little Ice Age began. [4] This change in climate saw agricultural output decline significantly, leading to repeated famines, exacerbated by the rapid population growth of the earlier era. 英法百年戰爭, disrupting trade throughout northwest Europe, most notably when, 1345年, 英王愛德華三世拒絕支付他的欠款，導致佛羅倫斯兩家最大的銀行─Bardi 和 Peruzzi─破產。在東部，隨著奧斯曼帝國在這個地區的擴張，戰爭也影響了貿易路線。但是打擊最大的還是造成北義大利人口密集城市大量減少的黑死病。例如，佛羅倫斯的人口就從 90,000 降到了 50,000人。^[2] 接踵而來的還有1378年佛羅倫斯的紡織工人 (the ciompi) 罷工。

文藝復興先驅，如但丁和彼特拉克，就活在這個動盪的年代，而文藝復興也在14世紀上半葉拉開序幕。荒謬的是，這些災難加快了文藝復興的到來。奧斯曼帝國的擴張威脅的拜占庭帝國的利益，迫使一批東部地區的財富和受過教育的希臘難民流入義大利，也為義大利帶來了古典的希臘文明，導致許多已經被遺忘很久的古典作品被重新發現。黑死病奪去了歐洲1/3人口的生命，但是倖存的人們因此變得更加富有，食物更加充足，而且，更特別地，有更多的盈餘可花費在對藝術和建築等奢侈品上。當15世紀早期，黑死病出現的頻率漸漸減少時，歐洲的人口再度開始增長。This new demand for products and services, and the reduced number of people able to provide them (due to the deaths caused by the plague), 使社會下層階級的人們處於有利的地位。更進一步來說，這個需求也製造了越來越多的銀行家，商人，和技術工匠。The horrors of the Black Death and the seeming inability of the Church to provide relief would contribute to a decline of church influence, 而這也是另一個促進文藝復興的重要因素。此外， Bardi 和Peruzzi 銀行的倒閉，開啟了梅第奇家族在佛羅論薩的興起之路。Robert Sabatino Lopez argues that the economic collapse was a crucial cause of the Renaissance.^[3] According to this view, in a more prosperous era, businessmen would have quickly reinvested their earnings in order to make more money in a climate favourable to investment. However, in the leaner years of the fourteenth century, the wealthy found few promising investment opportunities for their earnings and instead chose to spend more on culture and art.

Another popular explanation for the Italian Renaissance is the "Baron Thesis," first advanced by historian Hans Baron.[7] It states that the primary impetus of the early Renaissance was the long running series of wars between Florence and Milan. By the late fourteenth century, Milan had become a centralized monarchy under the control of the Visconti family. Giangaleazzo Visconti, who ruled the city from 1378 to 1402, was renowned both for his cruelty and for his abilities, and set about building an empire in Northern Italy. He launched a long series of wars with Milan, steadily conquering neighbouring states and defeating the various coalitions led by Florence that sought in vain to halt the advance. This culminated in the 1402 siege of Florence, when it looked as though the city was doomed to fall, before Giangaleazzo suddenly died and his empire collapsed.

Baron's thesis was that during these long wars, the leading figures of Florence rallied the people by presenting the war as one between the free republic and the despotic monarchy, between the ideals of the Greek and Roman Republics and those of the Roman Empire and Medieval kingdoms. For Baron, the most important figure in crafting this ideology was Leonardo Bruni. Baron argues that this time of crisis in Florence was the period when most of the major early Renaissance figures were coming of age, such as Ghiberti, Donatello, Masolino, and Brunelleschi, and that they were inculcated with this republican ideology. These and other figures, according to Baron, later went on to advocate such republican ideas, ideas which were to have an enormous impact on the Renaissance.

[编辑] 發展

[编辑] 國際關係

義大利北部於14世紀分裂為幾個好站的城邦，其中最強大的幾個是米蘭、佛羅倫斯、比薩、席耶那、熱那亞和威尼斯。義大利北部在教宗和神聖羅馬帝國為了爭奪誰才擁有至高主權而發起的長期紛爭中進一步被分裂。每個城邦會和其中一方結盟，然而城邦內部又會分裂成兩個派系。每個城邦之間戰事頻仍，不過來自於義大利之外的入侵則較少。在這個軍隊主要是由傭兵所組成的時代，儘管這些城邦人口不多，它們卻能夠維持龐大的軍力。Eventually, the most powerful city-states annexed their smaller neighbours. 佛羅倫斯在1406年兼併了，威尼斯拿下了 Padua 和 Verona，while the Duchy of Milan annexed a number of nearby areas including Pavia and Parma.

The first part of the Renaissance saw almost constant war on land and sea as the city-states vied for pre-eminence. On land, these wars were fought primarily by armies of mercenaries known as Condottieri, bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe, but especially Germany and Switzerland. The mercenaries were not willing to risk their lives unduly , and war became one largely of sieges and manoeuvring with few pitched battles. It was also in the interest of mercenaries on both sides to prolong any conflict, as this would continue their employment. Mercenaries were also a constant threat to their employers; if not paid, they often turned on their patron. If it became obvious that a state was entirely dependent on mercenaries, the temptation was great for the mercenaries to take over the running of it themselves -- this occurred on a number of occasions.[8]

At sea, Italian city-states sent many fleets out to do battle. The main contenders were Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, but after a long conflict the Genoese succeeded in reducing Pisa. Venice proved to be a more powerful adversary, and while at first relatively equal, the Genoese fleet was destroyed in a Venetian assault in 1380; from then on, Venice was pre-eminent.

On land, decades of fighting saw Florence and Milan emerge as the dominant players, and these two powers finally set aside their differences and agreed to the Peace of Lodi in 1454, which saw relative calm brought to the region for the first time in centuries. This peace would hold for the next forty years, and Venice's unquestioned hegemony over the sea also led to unprecedented peace for much of the rest of the 15th century.

In the beginning of the 15th century, adventurer and traders such as Niccolò Da Conti (1395–1469) travelled as far as Southeast Asia and back, bringing fresh knowledge on the state of the world, presaging further European voyages of exploration in the years to come.

[编辑] 梅第奇家族統治下的佛羅倫斯

From the late fourteenth century, Florence's leading family had been the Albizzi. Their main challengers were the Medicis, first under Giovanni de' Medici, then under his son Cosimo. 梅第奇家族 controlled Europe's largest bank and a wide array of other enterprises in Florence and elsewhere. In 1433, the Albizzi managed to have Cosimo exiled. The next year, however, saw a-pro Medici Signoria elected and Cosimo returned. The Medici became the town's leading family, a position they would hold for the next three centuries. Florence remained a republic, but the instruments of government were firmly under the control of the Medici and their allies. Cosimo only rarely had an official post, but was the unquestioned leader of the town.

Cosimo de' Medici was highly popular among the citizenry, mainly for bringing an era of stability and prosperity to the town. One of his most important accomplishments was negotiating the Peace of Lodi with Francesco Sforza ending the decades of war with Milan and bringing stability to much of Northern Italy. Cosimo was also an important patron of the arts, though some modern historians have argued the extent of his patronage has long been exaggerated.

Cosimo was succeeded by his sickly son Piero de' Medici, who died after five years in charge of the city. In 1469 the reins of power passed to Cosimo's twenty-one-year-old grandson Lorenzo, who would become known as "Lorenzo the Magnificent." Lorenzo was the first of the family to be educated from an early age in the humanist tradition and is best known as one of the Renaissance's most important patrons of the arts. Under Lorenzo, the Medici rule was formalized with the creation of a new Council of Seventy, which Lorenzo headed. The republican institutions continued, but they lost all power. Lorenzo was less successful than his illustrious forebears in business, and the Medici commercial empire was slowly eroded. Lorenzo continued the alliance with Milan, but relations with the papacy soured, and in 1478, Papal agents allied with the Pazzi family in an attempt to assassinate Lorenzo. Although the plot failed, Lorenzo's young brother, Giuliano, was killed, and the failed assassination led to a war with the Papacy and was used as justification to further centralize power in Lorenzo's hands.[9]

[编辑] 文藝復興的傳播

The Renaissance ideals first spread from Florence to the neighbouring states of Tuscany such as Siena and Lucca. The Tuscan culture soon became the model for all the states of Northern Italy, and the Tuscan variety of Italian came to predominate throughout the region, especially in literature. In 1447 Francesco Sforza came to power in Milan and rapidly transformed that still medieval city into a major centre of art and learning. Venice, one of the wealthiest cities due to its control of the Mediterranean Sea, also became a centre for Renaissance culture, especially architecture.

在1378年，教皇回到了羅馬，但是這個曾經的都城，在文藝復興早期依舊貧窮並且破敗不堪。^[4] 在1447年，教皇尼古拉斯5世即位後，他發起了一個龐大的重建羅馬的計畫，成果顯著。As the papacy fell under the control of the wealthy families from the north, such as the Medici and the Borgias the spirit of Renaissance art and philosophy came to dominate the Vatican. Pope Sixtus IV continued Nicholas' work, most famously ordering the construction of the Sistine Chapel. The popes also became increasingly secular rulers as the Papal States were forged into a centralized power by a series of warrior popes.

The nature of the Renaissance also changed in the late fifteenth century. The Renaissance ideal was fully adopted by the ruling classes and the aristocracy. In the early Renaissance artists were seen as craftsmen with little prestige or recognition. By the later Renaissance the top figures wielded great influence and could charge great fees. A flourishing trade in Renaissance art developed. While in the early Renaissance many of the leading artists were of lower- or middle-class origins, increasingly they became aristocrats.[11]

[编辑] 一般大眾

As a cultural movement, the Italian Renaissance affected only a small part of the population. Northern Italy was the most urbanized region of Europe, but three quarters of the people were still rural peasants. [12] For this section of the population life was essentially unchanged from the Middle Ages. [13] Classic feudalism had never been prominent in Northern Italy, with the peasants mostly working private farms or as sharecroppers. Some scholars see a trend towards refeudalization in the later Renaissance as the urban elites turned themselves into landed aristocrats. [14]

In the cities the situation was quite different. They were dominated by a commercial elite, which was just as exclusive as the aristocracy of any Medieval kingdom. It was this group that was the main patron of and audience for Renaissance culture. Below them there was a large class of artisans and guild members who lived comfortable lives and had significant power in the republican governments. This was in sharp contrast to the rest of Europe where artisans were firmly in the lower class. Literate and educated, this group did participate in the Renaissance culture. [15] The largest section of the urban population was the urban poor of semi-skilled workers and the unemployed. Like the peasants the Renaissance had little effect on them. One debate among historians is on how easy it was to move between these groups during the Italian Renaissance. There are a number of examples of individuals who rose from humble beginnings to the elite, but Burke notes that there have been two major studies in this area and both have found that the data do not clearly demonstrate an increase in social mobility. Most historians feel that early in the Renaissance social mobility was quite high, but that it faded over the course of the fifteenth century. [16] Inequality in society was very high. An upper class figure would earn hundreds of times more than a servant or labourer. Some historians feel that this unequal distribution of wealth was important to the Renaissance, as art patronage relies on the very wealthy.[17]

The Renaissance was not a period of great social or economic change, only of cultural and ideological development. It only touched a small fraction of the population, and in modern times this has led many historians, such as any that follow historical materialism, to reduce the importance of the Renaissance in human history.

[编辑] 義大利文藝復興的結束

The end of the Renaissance is as imprecisely marked as its starting point. For many, the rise to power in Florence of Girolamo Savonarola in 1497 marks the end of the city's flourishing. This austere monk rode to power on a widespread backlash over the secularism and indulgence of the Renaissance – his brief rule saw many works of art destroyed in the "Bonfire of the Vanities" in the centre of Florence. While Savonarola's rule quickly collapsed and the Medici returned to power, the counter movement in the church continued. In 1542 the Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition was formed and a few years later the Index Librorum Prohibitorum banned a wide array of Renaissance works.

Just as important was the end of stability with a series of foreign invasions of Italy known as the Italian Wars that would continue for several decades. These began with the 1494 invasion by France that wreaked widespread devastation on Northern Italy and ended the independence of many of the city-states. Most damaging was the May 6, 1527, Spanish and German troops sacking Rome that all but ended the role of the Papacy as the largest patron of Renaissance art and architecture. [18]

Due to the instability and the contact with foreign rulers a number of Italy's greatest artists chose to emigrate. The most notable example was Leonardo da Vinci who left for France in 1516. This spread north was also representative of a larger trend. No longer was the Mediterranean the most important trade route. In 1498 Vasco da Gama reached India and from that date the primary route of goods from the Orient was through the Atlantic ports of Iberia, France and England. These areas quickly far surpassed Italy in wealth and power. However, while the Italian Renaissance was fading, the Northern Renaissance in these other lands adopted many of its ideals and styles.

[编辑] 文化

[编辑] 文學與詩

在文藝復興之前，義大利語並不是義大利文學所使用的語言。直到13世紀，義大利的作家才開始使用母語來替代拉丁文，法文和普羅旺斯語。1250年代，義大利詩壇出現了一個重大的改變，以 Guittone d'Arezzo 和 Guido Guinizelli 為先鋒的Dolce Stil Novo詩體（新詩體，注重於柏拉圖式的愛情而非宮廷式的愛情）出現了。義大利文學的變化在文藝復興開始前數十年就已經開始了，尤其是在義大利詩壇。的確，13世紀的義大利文學變革為文藝復興的到來做好了鋪墊。

越來越多的文學著作在義大利本國出版印刷。同時，這些文學著作描述的年代不再是宗教盛行的時期，而變成了基督教統治以前的時代，如羅馬帝國和古希臘。當然這並不是說在當時並沒有宗教的出版物發行：但丁的神曲反映了明顯不同的中世紀的世界觀。基督教仍然對藝術家和文學家起著主要的影響，而古典文明對他們的影響是其次的。

在文藝復興早期，尤其是在義大利，人們翻譯了很多希臘文和拉丁文的古典著作。在經過了黑暗的中世紀時期之後，人們非常崇拜古典的文化。文藝復興時代的作家並不想只是刻板的繼承古代文學家的思想，然而，更多的作家嘗試把古代文化的創作方法和形式與自己的創作結合起來。在古義大利的作家中，他們仿效的最多的是西賽羅，賀瑞斯，Sallust 和維吉爾。在希臘作家中，他們仿效最多的是亞里斯多德，霍默，柏拉圖和蘇格拉底。

文藝復興時期的文學與詩歌創作也很深的受到了發展中的哲學和科學的印象。人文主義學者彼特拉克，作為一個新方法學的重要提出人，同時也是一個多才多藝的詩人，並且出版了幾本詩歌集。他採用拉丁文寫作，特別是非洲迦太基戰爭史詩，至今義大利還在傳誦，尤其是Canzoniere集，裏面收錄了描述他對蘿拉無私的愛的一些十四行詩。他引領了用義大利文創作十四行詩的蜂巢，後來的英國人湯瑪斯.懷亞特把他的詩歌譯成了英文，帶動了英國十四行詩的創作，從而出現了威廉·莎士比亞和其他難以計數的詩人。

彼特拉克的門徒，喬瓦尼•薄伽丘，也是當時一個主要的作家。他的主要著作《十日談》裏面收錄了由從佛羅倫斯躲避瘟疫而逃出去的十個人在10個晚上講述的100個故事。蔔伽丘的著作，特別是《十日談》，也是文藝復興時期很多英國作家的靈感和故事情節的來源，包括喬叟和莎士比亞。

除了宗教，古代文明和學術之外，對文藝復興文化影響最大的是政治。政治家馬基雅維利也是一個重要的義大利作家。他最著名的著作是《君主論》(Il principe)，在西方社會，這本著作在“馬基雅弗利的”這個術語開始出現之後也變家喻戶曉，指的是這本書裏對於自私態度的鼓吹。然而，很多專家都同意馬基雅維利並不是完全迎合他在書中闡述的觀點，因而“馬基雅維利的”並不是一個很準確的術語。這本著作對當代文學也起到了很大的影響左右。

[编辑] 科學與哲學

人們認為彼特拉克使文藝復興時期關於人文主義的新方法學的奠基人。人文主義認為人的本質是理性和有意識的，並且有自我決定和思考的能力。這是對天主教會對於人的靈魂是唯一純粹的實體的否定，儘管這種說法充滿神秘感和想像力。人文主義認為人性本善，而基督教則認為人性本惡，所以人必須要懺悔。人文主義為現實的本質開闢了全新的視野，對上帝和精神性提出了疑問，解答了基督教歷史所不能解釋的東西。

彼特拉克鼓勵古典拉丁文化和希臘文化的研究。他的一個重要成就就是找到了很多已經遺失不見的古代的手稿。他得到了很多富有義大利貴族，商人和皇室成員的援助，這些人花費了大量的的金錢來建築圖書館。研究古代文化變成了一種時尚，並且變成整個上流社會都樂於去做的事情。

當收集了希臘的著作，手稿，建立起了圖書館和博物館之後，印刷機的時代到來了。整個歐洲都忙於希臘文和拉丁文的著作翻譯成當代語言。

當提到哲學，藝術和文學在文藝復興時期巨大的進步時，通常也會提到科學的退步。人們更加尊重亞里斯多德和托勒密的宇宙學說。人文主義認為自然是精神上的創造，而不應該遵循法律或者數學的法則。同一時間哲學也迷失了邏輯的嚴格性，而更多的注重於直覺或者感覺。

直到文藝復興影響到北歐，隨著哥白尼，培根和笛卡兒的出現，科學才開始真正的復興。他們更象早期的啟蒙思想家，而不像是出現在文藝復興晚期。

[编辑] 雕塑、繪畫與建築

雕塑是最能展現文藝復興特點的美術形式。多那太羅是文藝復興早期最著名的雕塑家之一。他的大衛雕像表現了對裸體的研究。一個世紀後，米開朗琪羅拓展了對雕塑形式的發掘，他的作品獨立於任何一種建築結構。他的作品大衛雕像也是種對裸體人像的研究；然而米開朗琪羅的大衛雕像是一種更自然的形式。兩者都以構圖的均衡為基礎，以一隻腳承重。這也是文藝復興時期雕像的典型姿勢。

文藝復興時期的繪畫以對於透視畫法，現實主義和宗教主題的脫離著名，而以宗教作為主題的中世紀藝術不同。這個時期人體和自然景觀成為了繪畫作品的中心。皮埃羅•黛拉•弗朗西絲卡當時以空間透視畫法而聞名。馬薩喬在那時還不是很著名。和哥特式的繪畫作品相比，他的畫作是革命性的。文藝復興早期的畫家，例如Paolo Uccello, Domenico Ghirlandaio 和andro Botticelli，並不為大多數人所熟知。文藝復興時代的古典主義派別出現了人們所認為最“精緻”的畫作。其中最著名的畫家是達文西，米開朗基羅和拉斐爾。他們很多作品聞名於世，最後的晚餐，Scuola di Atena和聖家，都是透視，寫實和自然畫法的代表作。

文藝復興時期的繪畫在16世紀中期融合進了風格主義。風格主義畫作更多的描繪風景和肖像，極少有宗教主題。角色通常是變形和扭曲，動作中雕琢的痕跡比較重。

像繪畫一樣，文藝復興時期的建築藝術受到了古典文明的啟發。在義大利，文藝復興的風格最開始從佛羅倫斯開始。一些早期的建築物表現了布魯內萊斯基•菲利波風格的神聖風格。文藝復興早期建築的典型代表，S. Spirito建築內部的結構表現了對透光性和空間的新理解。這種建築流派反映了人文主義哲學思想，對於人心靈的啟迪和透徹剛好和中世紀的黑暗和精神性相反。古代文明的復興在Ruccelai宮殿上得到了最好的證明。建築物的立柱都是按照古典的順序排列的。地面的立柱是多利克式柱頭，第一層是愛奧尼亞式柱頭，而第二層是科林斯式柱頭。

文藝復興在1500年的羅馬達到了空前的規模。聖彼得教堂式這個時期最著名的建築物。起初是由這個時期最卓越的建築學家布拉曼特•多納托設計的，同時參與的幾乎有文藝復興時期幾乎所有著名的建築學家，包括米開朗基羅和Giacomo della Porta。晚期文藝復興開始的標誌是1550年，帕拉第奧•安德列亞提出了一種新的柱式風格。正面由一些兩到三層高的巨柱做裝飾。

[编辑] 音樂

文藝復興時期的古典音樂作品主要在西元1400年到1600年產生。這個時期的結束比開始更有明確的定義，不像其他的藝術門類，在15世紀初音樂上沒有明顯的變革，並且文藝復興時期的音樂特點是逐漸變化的。

可以確定的是，早期文藝復興音樂作品主要是對第三間隔的依靠作為和音。從12世紀開始的複調音樂在整個14世紀變得更為細緻而不依靠聲音的表述。15世紀初的音樂趨向簡單，聲音致力於平滑。

到15世紀末，複調宗教音樂又開始變得複雜起來，在某種意義上和當時發展到極致的繪畫有聯繫；接下來到16世紀早期，音樂又開始簡單化了。

在16世紀晚期的音樂，尤其是小曲，趨向於更加複雜和半音音階的趨奉。此時，在佛羅倫斯，音樂家也開始轉向古典流派，他們試圖通過挽詩的形式恢復古希臘的夢幻化的音樂形式。

[编辑] 註腳

• ^  De Lamar Jensen, Renaissance Europe pg. 95
• ^  Peter Burke. The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy pg. 232
• ^  ibid pg. 93
• ^  Jensen pg. 98
• ^  ibid pg. 97 see also Andrew B. Appleby's "Epidemics and Famine in the Little Ice Age." Journal of Interdisciplinary History. Vol. 10 No. 4.
• ^  Robert Sabatino Lopez. "Hard Times and Investment in Culture."
• ^  Hans Baron. The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance
• ^  Jensen pg. 64
• ^  ibid pg. 80
• ^  ibid pg. 252
• ^  Burke. pg. 271
• ^  ibid pg. 256
• ^  Jensen. pg. 105
• ^  Burke. pg. 246
• ^  Jensen. pg. 104
• ^  Burke. pg. 255
• ^  Brian S. Pullan History of Early Renaissance Italy.
• ^  Burke. pg. 271

[编辑] 參考書目

[编辑] References

• Baron, Hans. The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966.
• Burckhardt, Jacob (1878), The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, trans S.G.C Middlemore (republished in 1990 under ISBN 014044534X)
• Burke, Peter. The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
• Hagopian, Viola L. "Italy", in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. ISBN 1561591742
• Hay, Denys. The Italian Renaissance in Its Historical Background. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
• Jensen, De Lamar (1992), Renaissance Europe (ISBN 0395889472)
• Lopez, Robert Sabatino, The Three Ages of the Italian Renaissance Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1970.
• Pullan, Brian S. History of Early Renaissance Italy. London: Lane, 1973.
• 義大利文藝復興的起源與模式,朱龍華著,人民出版社,2004 ISBN 7010040257