Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

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Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
Part of the Indo-Pakistani Wars
A cover story on the war featuring Pakistani President Ayub Khan crossing swords with Indian PM Lal Bahadur Shastri.
Date August - September 21, 1965 Location Indian subcontinent Result Stalemate, UN mandated ceasefire. Casus belli Pakistan backed guerillas' infiltration into Jammu & Kashmir, India
Combatants
India	Pakistan
Commanders
Gen J N Chaudhuri, Lt Gen Harbakhsh Singh	Field Marshal Ayub Khan, Gen Musa Khan
Casualties
3,264 killed[1] 8,623 wounded[1] (From July to ceasefire)	3,800[2] - 6,917 killed[3] (17 day period alone) 4,000 - 7,000 killed/ captured[4] (July to September)

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, also known as the Second Kashmir War, was the culmination of a series of skirmishes that occurred between April 1965 and September 1965 between India and Pakistan. The war was the second fought between India and Pakistan over the region of Kashmir, the first having been fought in 1947. The war lasted five weeks, resulted in thousands of casualties on both sides and ended in a United Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire. It is generally accepted that the war began following the failure of Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar which was designed to infiltrate and invade Jammu and Kashmir.

Much of the war was fought by the countries' land forces in the region of Kashmir and along the International Border (IB) between India and Pakistan. The war also involved a limited participation from the countries' respective air forces. This war saw the largest amassing of troops in Kashmir, a number that was overshadowed only during the 2001-2002 military standoff between India and Pakistan. Most of the war was fought on land by each country's infantry and armored units, with substantial backing from their air forces. Many details of this war, like those of most Indo-Pakistani Wars, remain unclear and riddled with media biases.

[edit] Pre-war escalation

A declassified US State Department telegram that confirms the existence of hundreds of "infiltrators" in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. Dated during the events running up to the 1965 war.

Fighting broke out between India and Pakistan in an area known as the Rann of Kutch, a barren region in the Indian state of Gujarat. Initially involving the border police from both nations, the disputed area soon witnessed intermittent skirmishes between the countries' armed forces firstly on March 20 and again in April 1965. In June the same year, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson successfully persuaded both countries to end hostilities and set up a tribunal to resolve the dispute. The verdict, which came later in 1968, saw Pakistan gaining 350 square miles (900 km²) of the Rann of Kutch, as against it's original claim of 3500 sq miles.^[5]

After its successes in the Rann of Kutch, Pakistan, under the leadership of General Ayub Khan, is said to have believed that the Indian Army was unable to defend itself against a quick military campaign in the disputed territory of Kashmir, following a loss to China in 1962.^[6] Pakistan believed that the population of Kashmir was generally discontented with Indian rule and that a resistance movement could be ignited by a few infiltrating saboteurs. This was codenamed Operation Gibraltar.^[7] For its part, Pakistan claimed to have been concerned by the attempts of India to absorb Kashmir - a state that Pakistan claims as "disputed", into the Indian union by way Articles 356 and 357 of the Indian Constitution allowing the President of India to declare President's Rule in the disputed state. Pakistan was taken aback by the lack of support by the United States, an ally with whom the country had signed an Agreement of Cooperation. The United States declared its neutrality in the war by cutting off military supplies to both sides.^[6]

[edit] The war

Pakistan's Ichhogil Canal was a vital link that was secured by Indian troops. The picture shows a bridge across the canal, that was destroyed by the Pakistan Army before retreating.

On August 15, 1965, Indian forces crossed the ceasefire line and launched an attack on Pakistan administered Kashmir, marking an official beginning to the war. Pakistani reports cite this attack as unprovoked.^[8] Indian reports cite the attack as a response to the massive armed infiltrations by Pakistan.^[9] Initially, the Indian Army met with considerable success in the northern sector (Kashmir). After launching a prolonged artillery barrage against Pakistan, India was able to capture three important mountain positions. However, by the end of the month both sides were on even footing as Pakistan had made progress in areas such as Tithwal, Uri and Punch and India had gains in Pakistan Administered Kashmir (sometime referred as Pakistan Occupied Kashmir), having captured the Haji Pir Pass eight kilometers inside Pakistani territory.^[10] Following the failure of Operation Gibraltar, that resulted in territorial gains and rapid Indian advances in Kashmir, Pakistan launched a bold counter attack on September 1, 1965 to reclaim vital posts in Kashmir lost to India. This attack, called "Operation Grand Slam" was intended to capture the vital town of Akhnoor in Jammu and thus sever communications and cut off supply routes to Indian troops. Attacking with an overwhelming ratio of troops and technically superior tanks, Pakistan was on the verge of springing a surprise against Indian forces, who were caught unprepared and suffered heavy losses.^[10] India then called in its air force to target the Pakistani attack in the southern sector. The next day, Pakistan retaliated, initialising its air force to retaliate against Indian forces and air bases in both Kashmir and Punjab. But Operation Grand Slam failed to achieve its aim as the Pakistan Army was unable to capture the town. This became one of the turning points in the war, as India decided to relieve pressure on its troops in Kashmir by attacking Pakistan further south.

An Indian Army Officer posing outside a captured Pakistani police station (Barkee) in Lahore District.

India crossed the International Border (IB) on the Western front on September 6 (some officially claim this to be the beginning of the war).^[8] On September 6, the 15th Infantry Division of the Indian Army, under World War II veteran Major General Prasad battled a massive counterattack by Pakistan near the west bank of the Ichhogil Canal (BRB Canal), which was a de facto border of India and Pakistan. The General's entourage itself was ambushed and he was forced to flee his vehicle. A second, this time successful, attempt to cross over the Ichhogil Canal was made through the bridge in the village of Barki, just east of Lahore. This brought the Indian Army within the range of Lahore International Airport, and as result the United States requested a temporary ceasefire to allow it to evacuate its citizens in Lahore. One unit of the Jat regiment, 3 Jat had also crossed the Ichogil canal and captured^[11] the town of Batapore (Jallo Mur to Pakistan) on the west side of the canal, threatening Lahore on the very start of the war.

The same day, a counter offensive consisting of an armored division and infantry division supported by Pakistan Air Force Sabres rained down on the Indian 15th Division forcing it to withdraw to its starting point. Although 3 Jat suffered minimal casualties, the bulk of the damage being taken by Ammunition and stores vehicles, the higher commanders however, had no information of 3 Jat's capture of Batapore and misleading information led to the command to withdraw from Batapore and Dograi to Ghosal-Dial. This move brought extreme disappointment^[12] to Lt-Col Desmond Hayde, CO of 3 Jat. Dograi was eventually recaptured by 3 Jat on 21 September, for the second time but after a much harder battle due to Pakistani reinforcements.

A Pakistan Army 106mm recoilless rifle position during the war.

On the days following September 9, both nations' premiere formations were routed in unequal battles. India's 1st Armored Division, labelled the "pride of the Indian Army", launched an offensive towards Sialkot. The Division divided itself into two prongs and came under heavy Pakistani tank fire at Taroah and was forced to withdraw. Similarly, Pakistan's pride, the 1st Armored Division, pushed an offensive towards Khemkaran with the intent to capture Amritsar (a major city in Punjab, India) and the bridge on River Beas to Jalandhar. The Pakistani 1st Armored Division never made it past Khem Karan and by the end of September 10 lay disintegrated under the defences of the Indian 4th Mountain Division at what is now known as the Battle of Asal Uttar (Real Answer). The area became known as 'Patton Nagar' (Patton Town) as Pakistan lost/abandoned nearly 100 tanks mostly Patton tanks obtained from the United States.

The war was heading for a stalemate, with both nations holding territory of the other. The Indian army suffered 3,000 battlefield deaths, while Pakistan suffered no less than 3,800. The Indian army was in possession of 710 mile² (1,840 km²) of Pakistani territory and the Pakistan army held 210 mile² (545 km²) of Indian territory, mostly in Chumb in the northern sector.

[edit] Aerial warfare

See Main articles: Indian and Pakistan accounts on the air war.

An Indian Air Force Gnat which was captured by Pakistan Air Force on 3 September 1965 now on display at Pakistan Air Force Museum, Karachi.

The war saw the Indian Air Force and the Pakistani Air Force being involved in full scale combat for the first time since independence. Though the two forces had previously faced off in the First Kashmir War during the late 1940s, it was limited in scale compared to the '65 conflict.

On September 1, 1965, war erupted between the Republic of India and Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The Indian Air Force's Number 45 squadron quickly responded to the urgent call for air strikes against the Pakistani army and IAF Vampire FB Mk 52s were successful in staggering the Pakistani invasion. The Vampires were followed in quick succession by Mysteres of Nos 3 and 31 Squadron from Pathankot. While the Pakistani invasion was blunted, a price was paid. One Vampire was shot down by ground fire and three Vampires were shot down by PAF F-86 Sabres. The Vampires were grossly mismatched against the Sabres and paid the price.

The appearance of the Sabres necessiated a move by the IAF to send the Folland Gnat fighters to the forward base of Pathankot. The move succeeded - within two days the IAF drew first blood. Sqn Ldr Trevor Keelor of No.23 Squadron shot down a F-86 Sabre on September 3, marking the first air combat victory to the IAF since WW2. The very next day Flt Lt V S Pathania repeated the feat - by shooting down Fg Offr NM Butt's Sabre of the PAF.

On September 6, The Indian Army crossed the border at Lahore to relieve pressure off the Chamb Jaurian sector. On the evening of the same day, the PAF responded with attacks on Indian airfields. The attack on Pathankot was successful and the IAF lost nearly 10 aircraft on the ground. However the attack on Halwara was unsuccessful. Two of the attacking raiders were shot down for the loss of two Indian Hunters. The Indian pilots ejected and survived while both PAF pilots were killed.

The next day, September 7, the IAF mounted over 33 sorties against the PAF airfield complex at Sargodha. about half a dozen aircraft were destroyed on the ground. But losses were heavy too. Two Mysteres and three Hunters were lost to various causes. One of the Mysteres was involved in an air combat with an F-104 Starfighter and shot it down before it crashed. The pilot Sqn Ldr Devayya was awarded the Maha Vir Chakra only after 23 years passed. His feat was not known till it was revealed in a Pakistani Publication.

September 7 also marked the day when the PAF attacked IAF airfields in the Eastern Sector. The raid on Kalaikunda was successful once again and the IAF lost 8 aircraft in two raids. However the IAF had some consoling factor in that two of the attacking Sabres were shot down by IAF Hunters. One Indian pilot Flt Lt A T Cooke engaged four Sabres singlehandedly and shot down one confirmed and claimed another as probable. This second 'probable Sabre flew back to Dacca but was declared a write off by the PAF.

The war tapered off after September 8th and there were occasional clashes between the IAF and the PAF. During the conflict IAF Canberras raided several Pakistani bases including Sargodha and Chakala. On September 14, Canberras undertook the deepest strike yet on the Pakistani bases of Peshawar and Kohat. The PAF admits that the IAF came very close to wiping out the PAF B-57 fleet if not for a near miss by a Canberra on that raid.

At one stage the IAF was operating 200 air missions simultaneously. IAF Gnats of No 23 and 9 squadrons played a significant role in major air battles and helped to turn the tide after an initial Pakistani thrust.

In addition to counter air sorties, The Indian Air Force also launched massive offences on the invading army. The IAF also went in deep within the Pakistani territory and targeted Pakistan's airfields and missile launch centres.

On these missions, sporadic aircombats occurred between IAF and PAF fighters. One Gnat was shot down on Sept 12, followed by a Sabre on Sept 14. One Hunter and One Sabre were shot down in aircombat on Sept 16, and Three Sabres were downed by Gnats on Sept 18 and 19. The last aircombat of the war happened on Sept 20, when Two Hunters were shot down in exchange for one PAF Sabre. On the same day a F-104 intercepted a Canberra bomber on its way back from Sargodha and shot it down.

On Sept 21st, IAF Canberras carried out a deep strike daylight sortie into Pakistan and destroyed the PAF Radar at Badin using rockets. The Ceasefire was declared on the night of Sept 22.

The PAF had claimed 104 IAF aircraft destroyed for a loss of 19 aircraft, while India stated a loss of 35 aircraft compared to 73 PAF aircraft destroyed. However the Official Indian Armed Forces History finally revealed the Indian losses to be around 66, with a few more civilian aircraft also lost on the ground. The losses were mostly due to Pakistani raids on Indian Air Fields. The History also gives the correct claimed PAF aircraft destroyed at 48.

According to one neutral source "Losses were relatively heavy--on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan."[3]. One of the major roles of the IAF during the 1965 war was the keeping the Pakistan army's mobile artillery and tank divisions in check, the results of these IAF operations contributed to Pakistan suffering one of the greatest tank losses in modern war history, losing over 200 tanks. Pakistan's mobile artillery divisions also suffered tremendously contributing to the high casuality rate on Pakistan's side due to incessant IAF air attacks.

Both countries hold highly contradictory claims on combat losses during the war and hardly any neutral sources have thoroughly verified the claims of both countries' claim. PAF claimed it had shot down 104 IAF planes losing only 19 in the process. India meanwhile officially stated that 35 IAF planes were lost while shooting down 73 PAF aircraft. According to Indian figures, the overall attrition rate was 2.16% for Pakistan Air Force and 1.49% for IAF.^[13] India also pointed that despite PAF claims of losing only a squadron of combat craft, Pakistan had been seeking urgent help from Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Turkey and China, for additional aircraft within 10 days of the war.^[14]

Pakistan's main strike force comprised the U.S. made F-86 Sabre jets, which claimed a fair share of Indian planes, though remaining vulnerable to the dimunitive Folland Gnat, nicknamed "Sabre Slayer". The F-104 Starfighter of the PAF was by far the fastest fighter plane operating in the subcontinent at that time. On the other hand, the Indian Air Force relied largely on the Hawker Hunter for attacks. Unlike the PAF whose planes largely consisted of American craft, IAF flew an assortment of planes from Vampires to Mysteres, many of which were outdated in comparison to PAF planes. Some of the fiercest dogfights occurred over Sargodha which was PAF's main base housing the bulk of its planes; IAF planes attacked the base but PAF was able to repulse the attacks. PAF responded by attacking Indian bases with some success, especially in air to ground attacks but were soon forced to back off, in order to provide cover for its ground troops elsewhere. In one incident, the Gujarat Chief Minister, Balawant Rai Mehta's civilian craft was shot down by PAF Sabres inside Indian territory, killing him and the crew. By the end of the war, neither the numerically larger IAF, nor the PAF which possessed a qualitative advantage,^[15][16] achieved air superiority.

[edit] Tank battles

Tanks of 18th Cavalry (Indian Army) on the move during the 1965 Indo-Pak War.

Main Article: International assessments on the tank battles

The 1965 war witnessed some of the largest Tank Battles since World War II. The Pakistani Army had both numerical advantage in tanks as well as better equipment in the form of the venerable Patton Tank.^[17] Pakistani armour comprised largely of Patton tanks, which were superior to the M4 Sherman tanks possessed by Indian Army. Even the Sherman tanks on the Indian side were no match for the Pakistani Sherman because the latter were equipped with 90mm guns compared to the 75mm guns on the former. Despite the qualitative edge of Pakistani armour,^[15] it was however, outclassed on the battlefield due to stellar performance by Indian tank crews.

[edit] Naval hostilities

The navies of both India and Pakistan played no prominent role in the war of 1965, although Pakistani accounts dispute this.^[18] On September 7, a flotilla of the Pakistani Navy carried out a small scale bombardment of the coastal Indian town and radar station of Dwarka, which was 200 miles (300 km) south of the Pakistani port of Karachi. Codenamed Operation Dwarka, it however, did not fulfill its primary objectives and there was no immediate retaliatory response from India. Later, the Indian fleet from Bombay sailed to Dwarka to patrol off that area to deter further bombardment. Nonetheless, foreign authors have noted that the "insignificant bombardment"^[19] of the town was a "limited engagement, with no strategic value."^[18]

According to some Pakistani sources, one maiden submarine, PNS Ghazi allegedly kept the Indian Navy's aircraft carrier INS Vikrant besieged in Bombay throughout the war. Indian sources claim that it was not their intention to get into a naval conflict with Pakistan, but to restrict the war to a land-based conflict.^[20] Moreover, the ship was under refit in dry dock at that time and not even deployed. Even Pakistani defence writers have discounted claims that the Indian Navy was bottled up in harbour due to a single submarine, instead stating that 75% of the Indian Navy was under maintenance in harbour.^[21]

Further south towards Bombay, there were reports of underwater attacks by the Indian Navy against what they suspected were American-supplied Pakistani submarines, but this was never confirmed.

[edit] Covert operations

Captured SSG troops being marched off by Indian troops and civilians.

A number of covert operations were launched by the Pakistan Army to infiltrate Indian airbases and sabotage them.^[22] The SSG (Special Services Group) commandos were parachuted into enemy territory and, according to the then Chief of Army Staff General Musa Khan, about 135 commandos were airdropped at three airfields. Given that the Indian targets (Halwara, Pathankot and Adampur) were deep into enemy territory only 22 commandos made it back alive and the stealth operation proved ineffective. Of those remaining, 93 were taken prisoner, and 20 were killed in encounters with the army, police or the civilians^[23] The daring attempt proved to be an "unmitigated disaster"^[22] with one of the Commanders of the operations, Major Khalid Butt being taken Prisoner. Despite the failed mission, Pakistan sources claim that it had impacted some of the planned Indian operations, as the 14 Indian Division was diverted to hunt for paratroopers, the next morning the PAF found the road filled with transport and destroyed many transport vehicles.^[24] The reason for this failure is attributed to the fact that they were not provided maps, proper briefing and worst of all with no planning or preparation^[25] In India, rewards were announced for any Pakistani spies or paratroopers.^[26]

[edit] Losses

India and Pakistan hold widely divergent claims on the damage they have inflicted on each other and the amount of damage suffered by them. The following summarizes each nation's claims.

There have been only a few neutral assessments of the damages of the war, some of the neutral assessments are mentioned below:-

• According to the United States Library of Congress Country Studies:

The war was militarily inconclusive; each side held prisoners and some territory belonging to the other. Losses were relatively heavy--on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan. Most Pakistanis, schooled in the belief of their own martial prowess, refused to accept the possibility of their country's military defeat by "Hindu India" and were, instead, quick to blame their failure to attain their military aims on what they considered to be the ineptitude of Ayub Khan and his government. [4]

• TIME magazine analyzing the conflict, ^[36] reported that India held 690 Mi² of Pakistan territory while Pakistan held 250 Mi² of Indian territory in Kashmir and Rajasthan, but had lost half its armour.

Cut off from U.S. and British arms supplies, denied Russian aid, and severely mauled by the larger Indian armed forces, Pakistan could continue the fight only by teaming up with Red China and turning its back on the U.N. ... India, by contrast, is still the big gainer in the war. Shastri had united the nation as never before.

• An excerpt from Stanley Wolpert's India, ^[37] summarizing the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, is as follows:

In three weeks the second IndoPak War ended in what appeared to be a draw when the embargo placed by Washington on U.S. ammunition and replacements for both armies forced cessation of conflict before either side won a clear victory. India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to, if not capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and controlled Kashmir's strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to Ayub's chagrin.

• Dennis Kux's "India and the United States estranged democracies" also provides a summary of the war. ^[38]

Although both sides lost heavily in men and materiel, and neither gained a decisive military advantage, India had the better of the war. New Delhi achieved its basic goal of thwarting Pakistan's attempt to seize Kashmir by force. Pakistan gained nothing from a conflict which it had instigated.

[edit] Ceasefire

On September 22, the United Nations Security Council unanimously passed a resolution that called for an unconditional ceasefire from both nations. The war ended the following day. The Soviet Union, led by Premier Alexey Kosygin, brokered a ceasefire in Tashkent (now in Uzbekistan), where Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani President Ayub Khan signed an agreement to withdraw to pre-August lines no later than February 25, 1966. The ceasefire though, was criticized by many hardliners and laymen alike in Pakistan who, relying solely on official reports and Pakistani media, believed that the leadership had surrendered military gains. Media reports in Pakistan had suggested that their military was performing admirably in the war and thus the Tashkent Declaration was seen as having forfeited the gains. Some recent books published by Pakistani authors, including one by ex-ISI chief titled "The Myth of 1965 Victory",^[39] allegedly exposed such Pakistani fabrications about the war, but were brought out by Pakistan Army to prevent its sale because it was "too sensitive".^[40][41]

India reported a number of ceasefire violations by Pakistan besides the expected exchange of small arms and artillery fire. India charged Pakistan with 585 violations in 34 days, while Pakistan countered with accusations of 450 incidents by India.^[42] India reported that Pakistan utilized the ceasefire to intrude and capture an Indian village of Chananwalla in the Fazilka sector. This was recaptured by Indian troops on 25 December. On October 10, a B-57 Canberra on loan to the PAF was damaged by 3 SA-2 missiles fired from the IAF base at Ambala. Pakistan claims that the pilot, S/L Rashid Meer flew the aircraft back but given that it suffered further damage when the nose wheel did not extend^[43] while landing, the aircraft is a possible write off. Another Pakistani Army Auster was shot down on 16 December, killing one Pak Army Captain. Yet again, on 2 February 1967, an AOP was shot down by IAF Hunters.

The ceasefire ensured a six year period of relative peace between the two neighboring rivals before war broke out once again in 1971.

[edit] Intelligence failures

[edit] Indian miscalculations

A Life magazine cover story on the war showing an Indian soldier in Kashmir with a bazooka.

Strategic miscalculations by both nations ensured that the result of this war remained a stalemate. The Indian Army failed to recognize the presence of heavy Pakistani artillery and armaments in Chumb and suffered significant losses as a result. The "Official History of the 1965 War", drafted by the Ministry of Defence of India in 1992 was a long suppressed document that outlined intelligence and strategic blunders by India during the war. According to the document, on September 22 when the Security Council was pressing for a ceasefire, the Indian Prime Minister asked the commanding Gen. Chaudhuri if India could possibly win the war, were he to hold off accepting the ceasefire for a while longer. The general replied that most of India's frontline ammunition had been used up and the Indian Army had suffered considerable tank loss.

It was found later that only 14% of India's frontline ammunition had been fired and India still held twice the number of tanks than Pakistan did. By this time, the Pakistani Army itself had used close to 80% of its ammunition. Air Chief Marshal (retd) P.C. Lal, who was the Vice Chief of Air Staff during the conflict, points to the lack of coordination between the IAF and the Indian army. Neither side revealed its battle plans to the other. The battle plans drafted by the Ministry of Defence and General Chaudhari, did not specify a role for the Indian Air Force in the order of battle. This attitude of Gen. Chaudhari was referred to by ACM Lal as the "Supremo Syndrome", a patronizing attitude sometimes attributed to the Indian army towards the other branches of the Indian Military. [5]

[edit] Pakistani miscalculations

The Pakistani Army's failures started from the drawing board itself, with the supposition that a generally discontent Kashmiri people would rise to the occasion and revolt against their Indian rulers, bringing about a swift and decisive surrender of Kashmir. For whatever reason, the Kashmiri people did not revolt, and on the contrary provided the Indian Army with enough information for them to learn of "Operation Gibraltar" and the fact that the Army was battling not insurgents, as they had initially supposed, but Pakistani Army regulars. The Pakistani army failed to recognize that the Indian policy makers would attack the southern sector and open up the theater of conflict. Pakistan was forced to dedicate troops to the southern sector to protect Sialkot and Lahore instead of penetrating into Kashmir.

Telegram from USA's Karachi Embassy: "Continuing propaganda re[garding] achievements of Pak forces seems to have convinced most that only Pak forbearance saved the Indians from disaster."

"Operation Grand Slam", which was launched by Pakistan to capture Akhnur, a town north-east of Jammu and a key region for communications between Kashmir and the rest of India, was also a failure. Many Pakistani critics have criticized the Ayub Khan administration for being indecisive during Operation Grand Slam. They claim that the operation failed because Ayub Khan knew the importance of Akhnur to India (having called it India's "jugular vein") and did not want to capture it and drive the two nations into an all out war. Despite progress made in Akhnur, General Ayub Khan for some inexplicable reason relieved the commanding Major General Akhtar Hussain Malik of charge and replaced him with Gen. Yahya Khan. A 24 hour lull ensued, which allowed the Indian army to regroup in Akhnur and oppose a lackluster attack headed by General Yahya Khan. "The enemy came to our rescue", asserted the Indian Chief of Staff of the Western Command. Some authors have noted that Pakistan might have been emboldened by a war game - conducted in March 1965 at the Institute of Defence Analysis, USA - that concluded that in the event of a war, Pakistan would win.^[44][45] Other authors like Stephen Philip Cohen, have consistently viewed that Pakistan Army "acquired an exaggerated view of the weakness of both India and the Indian military... the 1965 war was a shock".^[46] Pakistani Air Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of PAF during the war, Nur Khan later said that the Pakistan Army, and not India, was to be blamed for starting the war.^[47] However propaganda in Pakistan about the war continued; the war was not rationally analyzed in Pakistan,^[48] with most of the blame being heaped on the leadership and little importance given to intelligence failures that persisted until the debacle of the 1971 war, when Pakistan was comprehensively defeated and dismembered by India, leading to the creation of Bangladesh.

[edit] Involvement of other nations

The United States of America, which was the primary supplier of arms and ammunitions to both nations (especially Pakistan), placed a military embargo. The US was alarmed that weapons given to fight communism had been used by its allies to fight each other. This was a major blow to Pakistan, as much of its military hardware was supplied by the US, and it is believed to have contributed to the Pakistani decision that its forces could not sustain the fighting much beyond mid-September.^[49] Following the US decision, other NATO allies (including the UK) stopped military supplies to both nations. Both before and during the war, China had been a strong ally of Pakistan and had constantly threatened India, with whom it had fought a war in 1962. This was one of the reasons why India chose to accept the ceasefire, since it believed that it could not sustain a war on two fronts. While India's Non Aligned Movement stand saw few nations coming to its aid, Pakistan received help from other Islamic nations from the Persian Gulf region, including Turkey. Other Islamic countries like Indonesia too extended aid to Pakistan. Surprisingly, the USSR was more neutral than most other nations during the war and even invited both nations to host talks in Tashkent.

[edit] Consequences of the war

[edit] India

The war had created a tense state of affairs in its aftermath. Though the war was indecisive, Pakistan suffered much heavier material and personnel casualties compared to India. Many war historians believe that had the war continued, with growing losses and decreasing supplies, Pakistan would have been eventually defeated. India's decision to declare ceasefire with Pakistan caused some outrage among the Indian populace, who believed they had the upper hand. Both India and Pakistan increased their defense spending and the Cold War politics had taken roots in the subcontinent. The Indian Military, which was already undergoing rapid expansions, made improvements in command and control to address some shortcomings. Partly as a result of the inefficient information gathering, India established the Research and Analysis Wing for external espionage and intelligence. India viewed the US policy during the war as biased since Pakistan had started the war while US did little to restrain Pakistan.^[50] India slowly started aligning with the Soviet Union both politically and militarily. This would be cemented formally years later before the Bangladesh Liberation War. In light of the previous war against the Chinese, the performance in this war was viewed as a "politico-strategic" victory in India. The Indian premier, Shastri was hailed as a hero in New Delhi.^[51]

[edit] Pakistan

Many Pakistanis, rated the performance of their military positively. September 6 is celebrated as 'Defence Day' in Pakistan in commemoration of the successful defence of Sialkot against the Indian army. Pakistani Air Force's performance was seen in much better light compared to that of the ground troops. The myth of a mobile, hard hitting Pakistan Army was badly dented in the war as critical breakthroughs were not made.^[52] Several Pakistani writers criticized the military's ill-founded belief that their "Martial Race" of soldiers could defeat India in the war.^[53][54] Moreover, the end game left a lot to desire as Pakistan had lost more ground than gained and more importantly did not achieve the goal of occupying Kashmir, which has been viewed by many impartial observers as a defeat for Pakistan.^[55][56][57] Many high ranking Pakistani officials and military experts later criticized the faulty planning in Operation Gibraltar that ultimately led to the war. The Tashkent declaration was further seen as a raw deal in Pakistan though few citizens realised the gravity of the situation that existed at the end of the war. Under the advice of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan's then foreign minister, Ayub Khan had raised very high expectations among the people of Pakistan about the superiority - if not invincibility - of its armed forces,^[58] but Pakistan's inability to attain its military aims during the war, created a political liability on Ayub.^[59] The defeat of its Kashmiri ambitions in the war led to the army's invincibility being challenged by an increasingly vocal opposition.^[60] And with the war creating a huge financial burden, Pakistan's economy which had witnessed rapid progress in the early 60s, took a severe beating.^[61] Pakistan was also unhappy that its ally United States, did not come to help it. After the war, Pakistan would increasingly look towards China as a major source of military hardware and political support.

Another negative consequence of the war was the growing resentment against the Pakistani government in East Pakistan. Bengali leaders accused the government for not providing adequate security for East Pakistan during the conflict, even though large sums of money were taken from the east to finance the war for Kashmir.^[62] In fact despite some PAF attacks being launched from East Pakistan (present day Bangladesh) during the war, India did not retaliate in that sector, although East Pakistan was defended only by a two-infantry brigade division (14 Division) without any tank support.^[63] This was later considered to be the result of the strategic foresight of the Indian policy makers who believe that it would better not to get into a conflict with militarily weak East Pakistan whose Bengali speaking populace were largely discontented with the Western wing, and were culturally closer to India. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was apprehensive of the situation, and the need for greater autonomy for the east led to another war between India and Pakistan in 1971. However, bravery of the handful of Bengali commandos in the Pakistan army during the war encouraged the Pakistani army to start recruiting from East Pakistan on a larger scale, though earlier the Bengali would be ignored as not being a martial-race.

[edit] Further reading

• India-Pakistan war, 1965 Hari Ram Gupta
• Die to live: A selection of short stories based on the 1965 Indo-Pakistan war Muhammad Ismail Siddiqui.
• The war with Pakistan: A pictorial narration of the fifty days which rocked the sub-continent Dewan Berindranath
• First & Further reflections on the second Kashmir War (South Asia series) - 2 books by Louis Dupree.
• The India-Pakistan Air War of 1965 P.V.S.Jagan Mohan and Samir Chopra, Manohar Publishers
• War Dispatches Lt Gen Harbaksh Singh, Lancer International
• Indian Army after Independence Maj K C Praval, Lancer International
• Battle for Pakistan John Fricker, Ian Allan
• The Indo-Pakistan Conflict Russell Brines
• India Pakistan 1965 War : Role of Tanks Lt Col Bhupinder Singh, Publisher Unknown.

[edit] Notes