Word order
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In linguistic typology, word order is the order in which words appear in sentences. In many languages, changes in word order occur due to topicalization or in questions. However, most languages are generally assumed to have a basic word order, called the unmarked word order; other, marked word orders can then be used to emphasize a sentence element, to indicate modality (such as an interrogative modality), or for other purposes. For example, English is SVO (subject-verb-object), as in "I don't know this", but OSV is also possible: "This I don't know." This process is called topic-fronting (or topicalization) and is very common. In English, OSV is a marked word order because it emphasises the object.
An example of OSV being used for emphasis:
- A: I can't see Alice. (SVO)
- B: What about Bill?
- A: Bill I can see. (OSV, rather than I can see Bill, SVO)
OSV word order is also found in poetry in English.
Contents |
[edit] Sentence word orders
These are all possible word orders for the subject, verb, and object in the order of most common to rarest:
- SOV languages include the prototypical Japanese, Turkish, Korean, the Indo-Aryan languages and the Dravidian languages, as well as many others using this most common word order. Some, like Persian, have SOV normal word order but conform less to the general tendencies of other such languages.
-
- German and Dutch are SOV with V2 word order.
-
- Mandarin is SVO but has many SOV characteristics.
- VSO languages include Classical Arabic, the Insular Celtic languages and Hawaiian.
- VOS languages include Fijian and Malagasy.
- OSV languages include Xavante.
- OVS languages include Hixkaryana.
Others, such as Latin and Finnish, have no fixed word order; rather, the sentence structure is flexible. (Nonetheless, there is often a preferred word order; in Latin, SOV is the most frequent outside of poetry, and in Finnish SVO is the most frequent. For more information on word order in Finnish, see Finnish grammar.) In languages with this kind of flexible word order, the order of words in given sentence does not reliably indicate a noun's grammatical role, so nouns typically change their form to indicate their role; this is known as case declension.
It is not understood why word orders with the subject before the object are much more common than word orders with the object before the subject. It must be noted that in most nominative-accusative languages there is the tendency to identify the subject with the topic (who or what is being talked about), and to place the topic at the beginning of the sentence so as to establish the context quickly.
Some languages can be said to have more than one basic word order. French is SVO (Je vois Cécile "I see Cécile"), but it incorporates or cliticizes objective pronouns before the verb (Je la vois literally "I her see"). This makes French SOV in some sentences. However, speaking of a language having a given word order is generally understood as a reference to the basic, unmarked, non-emphatic word order for sentences with constituents expressed by full nouns or noun phrases. In other languages the word order of transitive and intransitive clauses may not correspond. Russian, for example, has SVO transitive clauses but free order (SV or VS) in intransitive clauses.
[edit] Phrase word orders and branching
There are several common correlations between sentence-level word order and phrase-level constituent order. For example, SOV languages generally put modifiers (adjectives and adverbs) before what they modify (nouns and verbs), and use postpositions. VSO languages tend to place modifiers after their heads, and use prepositions. For SVO languages, either order is common.
For example, French (SVO) uses prepositions (dans la voiture, à gauche), and places adjectives after (une voiture spacieuse). However, a small class of adjectives generally go before their heads (une grande voiture). On the other hand, in English (also SVO) adjectives always go before nouns (a big car), and adverbs can go either way, but initially is more common (greatly improved).
[edit] Free word order
Free word order is used to indicate discourse structure rather than to indicate who the doer is. Free word order languages are, for example, Russian, Serbian, Latin and Hungarian.
[edit] Further reading
- Syntactic and Paratactic Word Order Effects (PDF) Analysis of different types of word order variations across languages. Technical, but contains non-technical appendix.
- The Language Instinct (ISBN 0-06-095833-2) - Good general introduction to linguistics.
