بوټپوهنه

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Pinguicula grandiflora

دا د ژواکپېژندنې يا بيالوژۍ يوه څانګه ده. په لنډه توګه يو څه داسې تعريف لري: بوټپوهنه د بوټو د ژوند په هکله يوه ساينسي زده کړه ده. د ژواکپوهنې د يوې څانګې په توګه ورته د بوټو ساينس يا پوهه او يا هم د بوټوژواکپوهنه وايي چې په انګليسي ژبه د بوټاني په نامه يادېږي. پدې زده کړې کې د بوټو زغښت، رغښت يا جوړونې، برار او ودې په هکله بشپړه پوهاوی او په دغو کې د زاتي توپيرونو څېړنې ته هم بوټپوهنه وايي. بوټي پېژندنه د ډول ډول ګلانو،وښښو، سابو، اغزو او د ونو د دغو بوټو د ودې لپاره برابر چاپېريال، څره، اوبه او نور کمياوي موادو په اړه معلومات ورکوي .
بوټپوهنه پخپله په ځان کې د بوټو په هکله ډېرې نورې زده کړې رانغاړي چې په دې کې د بوټو جوړښت، د برار او ودې، د توليداتو، د مېټابوليزم، د لويېدلو او د بوټو د ناروغيو په هکله زده کړې شاملې دي. د بوټو په اړه څېړنه او پوهاوی د قبايلي چاپېريال نه راوتلی دی. ډول ډول بوټي به د څکلو سره يا خوړلو په ذريعه به په نښه او پېژندل کېدل همداو چې د زهري بوټو او درملو پېژندل به ترې کېدل. ځکه هم بوټپوهنه په ساينس کې يوه لرغوني پوهه ده . له هاغه لرغوني وخت نه دبوټپوهنې په څېړنيز ډګر کې لا پراختيا راغلې او د 550000 شاؤخوا د بوټو خېلونه او ژواندي پکې څېړل شوي.

نيوليک

1 دبوټپوهنې پرمختګ او اړمنتيا
2 تاريخ
- 2.1 پخوانۍ بوټپوهنه (د ۱۹۴۵ زېږيز کال نه مخکې)
- 2.2 نوې بوټپوهنه(د ۱۹۴۵ نه راپدېخوا)
3 دا هم وګورۍ
4 سرچينې
5 نورې لوستنې
- 5.1 Popular science style books on Botany
- 5.2 د بوټپوهنې په هکله اکاډميک او ساينسي کتابونه
6 باندنۍ تړنې
- 6.1 Flora and other plant catalogs or databases

[سمادول] دبوټپوهنې پرمختګ او اړمنتيا

Hibiscus

په ژواکپوهنه کې د بل ژوند د بڼې په پرتله, د بوټو په ژوند باندې له بل اړخ نه کتل کېږي . له ماليکيولي ژواکپوهنې نه تر ماليکيولر ،ذاتپوهن جنټکس او بايوکمسټري يا کمياوي پولې پورې د ژواندو (اورګانونو) د سلونو، مساماتو، او نورې برخې لکه د ژواندو بدني تړاؤ (اناټومي)سره سره ېې د بوټو ټولشمېرنه او پخپلو ټولګو کې د ژواکپوهنې ليدل کېږي. په دغو هر څېړنيزې پولې باندې يو بوټی پوهاند سره د دغو هر يو څان څان ته په خپلو ټولګو کې د وېشنې لپاره فکر وي چې ورته (ټاکسانومي) وايي ، جوړښت ته ېې د بوټي بدني تړاؤ (پلانټ اناټومي ) يا هم ګړنديتوب ته ېې بيا د بوټي پږني حالت (پلانټ فيزيولوژي ) وايي .

په تاريخي لحاظ بوټيپوهنه ټول هاغه څه پخل منځ کې رانغاړي کوم چې پر ځناورو ، يا حيواناتو باندې اړه نلري. پدغو ناځناورو ژواندو کې د فنجای يا (پسکه ) وهونکي ژواندي راځي .( دا په مايکالوجي )څانګه کې لوستل کېږي. (( د بکټريوم، بکټريا ) او د (ويروس) چې بيا د مايکروژواکپوهنې پورې تړاؤ لري لوستل کېږي . همداسې په نامه د الګای يو ډول ژواندی دی چې په فيکالوژي کې لوستل يا متالعه کېږي . ډېری د فنجای (پسکه) ژواندي ، د الګای او نور داسې مکروبونه د بوټېپوهنې سره کوم تړاؤ نه لري خو بيا هم ډېره پاملرنه ورته د بوټيپوهاندو رااوړي . او اکثرآدغه د پسکه وهونکو ژواندي ، الګای ژواندي او بکټريا د بوټي پوهنې په لومړيو تعليمي کورسونو کې رانغاړل شوي وي . د بوټو په اړه تعليم او پوهنه په څو وجو اړينه ده . بوټي په مځکه باندې د ژوند له بنستيزو اړخونو نه يادېږي . بوټي مونږ ته اکسيجن (صفا هوا) ، خواړه ، سپڼسي ،تار يا ريښکۍ ، او دارو درمل جوړوي له همدې نه چې بيا د ژوند بڼه نوره هم پسې د پايښت لپاره سموي . همداسې بوټي کاربون ډای اکسايډ (لوګي)زغمي او په ځانګړې توګه يو ډول زرغون غاز چې ورته وايي د فوټوسنتيسس په وجې. په راتلونکي کې د بوټو په ښه ډول پوهنه به د انسانانو لپاره يو قاطع مسله وي .

په تېره بيا بوټي کاربون ډای آکسايډ هم جذبوي، دا ګاز د فوټوساينتېسز په پروسه کې يو اهم ګاز دی. د بوټو په هکله يوه ښه او بشپړه پېژندنه د انساني ټولنو راتلونکي ته اهم مالومات دي چې ددې سره مونږ پدې توانېدی شو چې:

نړۍ ته خواړه برابر کړو
د ژوند بنسټيزې کړنې وپېژنو
د دارو درملو او د نورو موادو د جوړولو جوګه شو
چاپېريالي بدلونونه وپېژنو

[سمادول] د انسانانو خواړه

Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice.

Virtually all food eaten comes from plants, either directly from staple foods and other fruit and vegetables, or indirectly through livestock or other animals, which rely on plants for their nutrition. In other words, plants are at the base of nearly all food chains, or what ecologists call the first trophic level. Understanding how plants produce the food we eat is therefore important to be able to feed the world and provide food security for future generations, for example through plant breeding. Not all plants are beneficial to humans, some weeds are a considerable problem in agriculture and botany provides some of the basic science in order to understand how to minimize their impact. However, other weeds are pioneer plants which start an abused environment back on the road to rehabilitation, underlining that the term weed is a very relative concept, and that broadly defined a weed is simply a plant which is too successful. Ethnobotany is the study of this and/or other relationships between plants and people.

Gregor Mendel laid the foundations of genetics from his studies of plants.

[سمادول] د ژوند بنسټيزه کړنې

Plants are convenient organisms in which fundamental life processes (like cell division and protein synthesis for example) can be studied, without the ethical dilemmas of studying animals or humans. The genetic laws of inheritance were discovered in this way by Gregor Mendel, who was studying the way pea shape is inherited. What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, Barbara McClintock discovered 'jumping genes' by studying maize. These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to the understanding of fundamental biological processes.

[سمادول] دارو درمل

Many medicinal and recreational drugs, like cannabis, caffeine, and nicotine come directly from the plant kingdom. Aspirin, which originally came from the bark of willow trees, is just one example. There may be many novel cures for diseases provided by plants, waiting to be discovered. Popular stimulants like coffee, chocolate, tobacco, and tea also come from plants. Most alcoholic beverages come from fermenting plants such as barley malt and grapes.

Plants also provide us with many natural materials, such as cotton, wood, paper, linen, vegetable oils, some types of rope, and rubber. The production of silk would not be possible without the cultivation of the mulberry plant. Sugarcane, rapeseed, soy and other plants with a highly fermentable sugar or oil content have recently been put to use as sources of biofuels, which are important alternatives to fossil fuels, see biodiesel.

[سمادول] چاپېرياليز بدلونونه

Plants can also help us understand changes in on our environment in many ways.

Understanding habitat destruction and species extinction is dependent on an accurate and complete catalog of plant systematics and taxonomy.
Plant responses to ultraviolet radiation can help us monitor problems like the ozone depletion.
Analyzing pollen deposited by plants thousands or millions of years ago can help scientists to reconstruct past climates and predict future ones, an essential part of climate change research.
Recording and analyzing the timing of plant life cycles are important parts of phenology used in climate-change research.
Lichens, which are sensitive to atmospheric conditions, have been extensively used as pollution indicators.

In many different ways, plants can act a little like the 'miners canary', an early warning system alerting us to important changes in our environment. In addition to these practical and scientific reasons, plants are extremely valuable as recreation for millions of people who enjoy gardening, horticultural and culinary uses of plants every day.

[سمادول] تاريخ

[سمادول] پخوانۍ بوټپوهنه (د ۱۹۴۵ زېږيز کال نه مخکې)

The traditional tools of a botanist.

Among the earliest of botanical works, written around 300 B.C., are two large treatises by Theophrastus: On the History of Plants (Historia Plantarum) and On the Causes of Plants. Together these books constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and on into the Middle Ages. The Roman medical writer Dioscorides provides important evidence on Greek and Roman knowledge of medicinal plants.

In 1665, using an early microscope, Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, a short time later in living plant tissue. The German Leonhart Fuchs, the Swiss Conrad von Gesner, and the British authors Nicholas Culpeper and John Gerard published herbals that gave information on the medicinal uses of plants.

[سمادول] نوې بوټپوهنه(د ۱۹۴۵ نه راپدېخوا)

A considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying model plants like Arabidopsis thaliana. This weedy species in the mustard family was one of the first plants to have its genome sequenced. The sequencing of the rice (Oryza sativa) genome and a large international research community have made rice the de facto cereal/grass/monocot model. Another grass species, Brachypodium distachyon is also emerging as an experimental model for understanding the genetic, cellular and molecular biology of temperate grasses. Other commercially important staple foods like wheat, maize, barley, rye, millet and soybean are also having their genomes sequenced. Some of these are challenging to sequence because they have more than two haploid (n) sets of chromosomes, a condition known as polyploidy, common in the plant kingdom. The "Green Yeast" Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (a single-celled, green alga) is another plant model organism that has been extensively studied and provided important insights into cell biology.

In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny of flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants. As a result of this work, major questions such which families represent the earliest branches in the genealogy of angiosperms are now understood. Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.

[سمادول] دا هم وګورۍ

Crantz's Classis cruciformium..., 1769

History of plant systematics
History of phycology
بوټياڼه او د بوټيانو لړليک
Dendrochronology
List of domesticated plants
Edible Flowers
Flowers and List of flowers
ځنګلونه
Herbs
List of botanical journals
د بوټپوهانو لړليک
List of botanists by author abbreviation
List of publications in biology
Paleobotany
Palynology
د بوټو اناتومي
د بوټو فيزيالوژي
Plant community
Plant sexuality
Soil science
ونه
Vegetation
Weed Science
د ګلانو ډولونه
د ونو ډولونه
د پاڼو ډولونه
د بوټو ډولونه
د اغزو ډولونه
د وښښو ډولونه
د سابو ډولونه
څره څه شی ده؟
کمياوي مواد څه دي؟
خاوره
مځکه
اوبه
چاپېريال

[سمادول] سرچينې

U.S. Geological Survey. National Biological Information Infrastructure: Botany

[سمادول] نورې لوستنې

[سمادول] Popular science style books on Botany

Attenborough, David The Private Life of Plants, ISBN 0-563-37023-8
Bellamy, D Bellamy on Botany, ISBN 0-563-10666-2 an accessible and short introduction to various botanical subjects
Capon, B: Botany for Gardeners ISBN 0-88192-655-8
Cohen, J. How many people can the earth support? W.W. Norton 1995 ISBN 0-393-31495-2
Halle, Francis. In praise of plants ISBN 0-88192-550-0. English translation of a poetic advocacy of plants.
King, J. Reaching for the sun: How plants work ISBN 0-521-58738-7. A fluent introduction to how plants work.
Pakenham, T: Remarkable Trees of the World (2002) ISBN 0-297-84300-1
Pakenham, T: Meetings with Remarkable Trees (1996) ISBN 0-297-83255-7
Pollan, M The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World Bloomsbury ISBN 0-7475-6300-4 Account of the co-evolution of plants and humans
Thomas, B.A.: The evolution of plants and flowers St Martin's Press 1981 ISBN 0-312-27271-5
Walker, D. Energy, Plants and Man ISBN 1-870232-05-4 A presentation of the basic concepts of photosynthesis

[سمادول] د بوټپوهنې په هکله اکاډميک او ساينسي کتابونه

Buchanan, B.B., Gruissem, W & Jones, R.L. (2000) Biochemistry & molecular biology of plants. American Society of Plant Physiologists ISBN 0-943088-39-9
Crawford, R. M. M. (1989). Studies in plant survival. Blackwell. ISBN 0-632-01475-X
Crawley, M. J. (1997). Plant ecology. Blackwell Scientific. ISBN 0-632-03639-7
Ennos, R and Sheffield, E Plant life, Blackwell Science, ISBN 0-86542-737-2 Introduction to plant biodiversity
Fitter, A & Hay, R Environmental physiology of plants 3rd edition Sept 2001 Harcourt Publishers, Academic Press ISBN 0-12-257766-3
Lambers, H., Chapin, F.S. III and Pons, T.L. 1998. Plant Physiological Ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-98326-0
Lawlor, D.W. (2000) Photosynthesis BIOS ISBN 1-85996-157-6
Matthews, R. E. F. Fundamentals of plant virology Academic Press,1992.
Mauseth, J.D.: Botany : an introduction to plant biology. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0-7637-2134-4, A first year undergraduate level textbook
Morton, A.G. (1981). History of Botanical Science.Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-508380-7 (hardback)

ISBN 0-12-508382-3 (paperback)

Raven, P.H, Evert R.H and Eichhorn, S.E: Biology of Plants, Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-041-6, A first year undergraduate level textbook
Richards, P. W. (1996). The tropical rainforest. 2nd ed. C.U.P. (Pbk) ISBN 0-521-42194-2 £32.50
Ridge, I. (2002) Plants Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-925548-2
Salisbury, FB and Ross, CW: Plant physiology Wadsworth publishing company ISBN 0-534-15162-0
Stace, C. A. A new flora of the British Isles. 2nd ed. C.U.P.,1997. ISBN 0-521-58935-5
Strange, R. L. Introduction to plant pathology. Wiley-VCH, 2003. ISBN 0-470-84973-8
Taiz, L. & Zeiger, E. (1998). Plant physiology. 3rd ed. August 2002 Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-823-0
Walter, H. (1985). Vegetation of the earth. 3rd rev. ed. Springer.
Willis, K (2002) The evolution of plants Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-850065-3 £22-99