Периодизација

Из пројекта Википедија

Периодизација је покушај категоризације или дељења неког историјског, еволутивног, геолошког или космолошког времена у дискретне (тачно одређене) именоване целине.

Периодизација је комплексан проблем у историји. Историја је у суштини континуарна, па сваки систем периодизације захтева неки спољњи суд. Скоро свако динамичко доба је "доба промене", пошто је то део клишеа. И уопште није потребно делити историјска раздобља у жељи да се створи смисао прошлости или да се артикулишу промене које су се временом догодиле. Такође, различити народи и културе су осетили различите историје, па тиме теже различитим моделима периодизације. Имена раздобља се кроз време увек оспоравају и мењају. Тако неки историчар може тврдити да није било тако нечег као што је ренесанса, док ће други бранити такав концепт.

Разлози за ово су комплексни. Периодизационе целине се често преклапају или су чак контрадикторне једна другој. Потом, одређени периодизациони концепти су прихватљиви само под одређеним условима. Неки имају само културну употребну. Други се одређују према историјским догађајима (међуратне године: 1918. - 1939.), друге су дефинисане декадним бројним системом (1960е, 17. век). Има их и именованим по доминантним личностима (Викторијанско доба, Елизабетанско доба, Наполеоново доба).

Неке од употреба су, такође, специфичне за одређено поднебље. То се посебно односи на периодизациона имена потекла од личности или владајућих слојева, као што је Џексоново доба у САД, Меиџијанско доба у Јапану или Меровиншко доба у Француској. Термини из културе такође могу имати ограничене домете. Тако концепт "Романтичарског раздобља" може имати различито значење ван европејске културе. Као и нпр. 1960е, које технички одговарају где год се у свету рачунају године по Нашој ери, могу имати скуп различитих културних конотација у одређеним земљама. Из тог разлога је могуће рећи "1960е се никада нису догодиле у Шпанији". Зато што би тај термин означава сексуалну револуцију, контра-културу, побуне младих итд. које се никада нису догодиле током десетлећа шпанске конзервативне католичке културе под Франковим фашистичким режимом. Као што је могуће тврдити, као што тврди историчар Артур Марвик, да 1960е почињу у касним 1950-им и завршавају се у раним 1970-им. Његов разлог за такву тврдњу су културни и економски услови који дефинишу значење раздобља које покрива више од линеарне целине од 10 године које почињу бројевима 196. То проширино значење се назива "дугим 1960-им". Такво коришћење је проистекло из историчарског коришћења термина "Дуги деветнаести век" (1789-1914) не би ли прилагодили декадну хронологију културним и друштвеним фазама. Лично томе и осамнаести век може трајати од 1714. до 1789. Ерик Хобсбом се такође залагао да се раздобље назива "Кратким двадесетим веком", који се протеже од почетка Првог светског рата до краја Хладног рата.

Similar problems attend other labels. Is it possible to use the term 'Victorian' outside of Britain? It sometimes is used if it is thought that its connotations usefully describe the politics, culture and economic conditions characteristic of the last two-thirds of the nineteenth century. Nevertheless periodizing terms often have negative or positive connotations which may affect their usage. This would include 'Victorian', which is often used negatively to suggest sexual repression, class conflict, heavy industry and so on. Other labels such as 'Renaissance' have strongly positive characteristics. As a result, these terms will sometimes be extended in meaning. Thus the 'English Renaissance' is virtually identical in meaning to the 'Elizabethan Period'. However the Carolingian Renaissance is said to have occurred during the reign of the Frankish king Charlemagne. There is a space of approximately seven hundred years between these two renaissances. Other examples include the 'American Renaissance' of the 1820s-60s, referring mainly to literature, and the 'Harlem Renaissance' of the 1920s, referring mainly to literature but also to music.

Because of these various positive and negative connotations, some periods are luckier than others regarding their names, although this can lead to problems such as the ones outlined above. The word 'Renaissance', meaning rebirth in French, was created by an Italian poet still perceived as belonging to the beginnings of the period, Petrarch. Its dominant usage still refers to the cultural changes that occurred in Italy, and which culminated in what is termed the High Renaissance at around 1500. This concept applies dominantly to the visual arts, referring to the work of Michelangelo, Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci. Secondarily it is applied to other arts, but it is disputed whether it is useful to describe a phase in economic, social and political history. Most professional historians (defined as paying members of organizations devoted to the propagation of history in higher education, like the American Historical Association) now refer to the historical period commonly known as the Renaissance as 'the Early Modern Period'. There has been no substantive change in the courses taught or books published to correspond to the change in period nomenclature, but this in part reflects differences between social history and cultural history. The timeframe is also slightly different, in that 'Renaissance' tends to refer to events over a much longer and generally earlier period than 'Early Modern'.

The term Middle Ages also derives from Petrarch. He was comparing his own period to the Ancient or Classical world, seeing his time as a time of rebirth after a dark intermediate period, the Middle Ages. The idea that the Middle Ages was a 'middle' phase between two other large scale periodizing concepts, Ancient and Modern, still persists. Smaller periodizing concepts such as Dark Ages occur within it. Both 'Dark Ages' and 'Middle Ages' still have negative connotations, the latter especially in its Latin form, medieval. However other terms, such as Gothic architecture, used to refer to a style typical of the High Middle Ages have largely lost the negative connotations they initially had, acquiring new meanings over time (see Gothic architecture and Goth).

The Gothic and the Baroque were both named during subsequent stylistic periods when the preceding style was unpopular. The word 'Gothic' was applied as a pejorative term to all things Northern European and, hence, barbarian, probably first in the generation of Francois Rabelais. The word 'baroque' (probably) was used first in late 18th century French about the irregular natural pearl shape and later about an architectural style perceived to be 'irregular' in comparison to the highly regular Neoclassical architecture of that time. Subsequently these terms have become purely descriptive, and have largely lost negative connotations. However the term 'Baroque' as applied to art (for example Rubens) refers to a much earlier historical period than when applied to music (Handel, Bach). This reflects the difference between stylistic histories internal to an art form and the external chronological history beyond it.

In many cases people living through a period are unable to identify themselves as belonging to the period that historians may later assign to them. This is partly because they are unable to predict the future, and so will not be able to tell whether they are at the beginning, middle or end of a period. Another reason may be that their own sense of historical development may be determined by religions or ideologies that differ from those used by later historians.

It is important to recognise the difference between self-defined historical periods, and those which are later defined by historians. At the beginning of the 20th century there was a general belief that culture, politics and history were entering a new era - that the new century would also be a new era in human experience. This belief was repeated at the beginning of the 21st century, though in a very different way. Other cultural and historical phases have only been described many years, or even centuries, later.

The origins of periodization is very old and first became part of the Western tradition in the myths of Ancient Greece and The Bible. Virgil spoke of a distant Golden Age and reccurent cycles of history. The Bible outlines a narrative of history from Creation to the End of time. One Biblical periodization scheme commonly used in the Middle Ages was Saint Pauls theological division of history in to three ages: the first before the age of Moses (under nature); the second under Mosaic law (under law); the third in the age of Christ (under grace). But perhaps the most widely discussed periodization scheme of the Middle Ages was the Six Ages of the World, where every age was a thousand years counting from Adam to the present, with the present time (in the Middle Ages) being the sixth and final stage.

[уреди] Види још

• cultural movement
• exponential timeline
• list of time periods

[уреди] References

• Lawrence Besserman, ed., The Challenge of Periodization : Old Paradigms and New Perspectives, 1996, ISBN 0815321031. See Chapter 1 for an overview of the postmodernism position on Periodization.