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Battle of Siffin

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Battle of Siffin
Image:ReenactorKharjites.jpg
Date July 26 to July 28, 657 CE
Location Syria
Result 2nd Major Muslim Civil War-Undecided
Combatants
Muawiyah I Ali ibn Abi Talib
Commanders
Amr ibn al-Aas Malik ibn Ashter
Strength
120,000 (approx) 90,000 (approx)
Casualties
45,000 (approx) 25,000 (approx)
Civil Wars of the Early Caliphates
Ridda warsFirst FitnaIbn al-Zubair's revoltKharijite RevoltSecond FitnaBerber RevoltZaidi RevoltAbassid Revolt
First Fitna
BassorahSiffinKarbala

The Battle of Siffin (May-July 657 CE) occurred during the First Fitna, or First Muslim civil war, with the main engagement taking place from July 26 to July 28. It was fought between Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muawiyah I, on the banks of the Euphrates river, in what is now Syria. Following the controversial murder of Uthman, Ali had become Caliph but struggled to be accepted as such throughout the Muslim Empire. Muawiyah, the governor of Syria, denounced Ali, and the two fought at Siffin for the Caliphate, and the right to lead the growing Muslim empire. However, the battle was indecisive, and the two parties agreed to an arbitration, whose result was equally indecisive and controversial. The battle and arbitration served to weaken Ali's position, but did not resolve the tensions that were plaguing the empire. To the Shia, Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam. To Sunni, Ali ibn Abi Talib was the fourth Rashidun Caliph, and Muawiyah the first Caliph of the Ummayyad dynasty. The events surrounding the battle are highly controversial between Sunni and Shia, and serve as part of the split between the two groups[citation needed].

Contents

[edit] Background

Tension existed within the Caliphate between a sub-section of the pre-Islamic aristocracy of Quraysh and the wider Arab & Quraysh tribes, particularly the Bedouin. This tension came to a head in the reign of Uthman, the third Caliph (ruled 644 to 656), who was besieged in his house by the tribesmen, and then overthrown and murdered. These Bedouin were angry at Uthman's style of government, which they saw as similar to that of a traditional Sheikh; instead they wanted more distribution of power, less concentrated in Uthman's family. While the tribesmen based this demand on religious arguments, it should be noted that this would have greatly increased their power.

In the wake of Uthman's murder, Ali ibn Abi Talib succeeded to the Caliphate, and was immediately faced by demands to bring the murderers of Uthman to justice. However, Ali did not think this was a practical solution. He is supposed to have said that "It were easier to bale out the floods of the Euphrates" than to punish all the vast number of people involved in Uthman's overthrow[citation needed]. Moreover, the Bedouin remained extremely powerful - at the time they were in effective control of the holy city Mecca and the capital Medina - and Ali feared that trying to punish them immediately would result in unending civil war, and would potentially lead to the end of a united Caliphate. Rather, he said he was helpless for the time being; "Wait - and the Lord will guide us."[citation needed]

As a result, Ali was seen as siding with the tribesmen, against Uthman's family which still held many influential and governing positions. Indeed, this may well have been his aim. However, this also meant that many saw him as condoning the overthrow and murder of Uthman. Such an accusation was extremely destabilising to the legitimacy of Ali's rule. The widow of Uthman; Nailah witnessed his murder and emotionally campaigned for justice. Ali was quickly challenged by a rebellion from Aisha, a widow of the prophet Mohammed, and her allies Talha and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam. Ali successfully defeated this rebellion at the Battle of the Camel, but a far more serious threat had now appeared.

The province of Syria was large and wealthy, including modern-day Jordan, Lebanon, Israel and Palestine. The governor was Muawiyah, a skilled administrator and politician, who had not helped Aisha in her rebellion, but who had inspired great personal loyalty in the region[citation needed]. After receiving an emotional letter from Nailah, as a relative of the murdered Uthman he felt the duty of honouring Uthman and his widow by seeking some form of revenge, and was angered by Ali's reluctance to bring the murderers of Uthman to justice. As a result, Muawiyah stated that Ali ibn Abi Talib was implicated in the murder of Uthman, denounced him as Caliph, and used his province (wilayah) in open revolt. In an emotional move, the bloodied shirt of Uthman and the chopped-off fingers of his wife Nailah were publicly displayed in the mosque in Damascus, so Muawiyah succeeded in creating ill feeling against Ali in Syria.

Most Shia believe that Muawiyah's true motivation all along was to gain the Caliphate, and that the murder of his kinsman was merely an excuse to rebel[citation needed]. Muawiyah is hence seen by many Shia as hypocritical, power-hungry and treacherous. However, not only did Ali not punish Uthman's murderers, but he recruited a large number of Uthman's beseigers into his army prior to the Battle of the Camel, this may have been due to necessity.

[edit] Start of hostilities

After the Battle of the Camel was over, Ali returned from Basra to Kufa in Rajab of 36 (January 657). He decided to transfer the capital of his government to Kufa from Medina because it was more centrally placed in the Muslim Empire, and he could halt Muawiyah’s progress into Iraq. It was vitally important for Ali that he subdue the province of Syria, and thereby legitimise his position as ruler of the Muslim empire.

At first, Ali ibn Abi Talib tried to settle matters peacefully by sending an envoy to Syria. He chose Jarir, who was the chief of Banu Bajila and governor of Hamdan. Jarir was known to be a friend of Muawiyah, and so Ali hoped that he would be acceptable as a mediator between the two sides. However, Jarir did not return for three months, and when he did he brought only the message that Muawiyah would submit to Ali just as soon as the murderers of Uthman were brought to justice. This was of course not acceptable to Ali. Ali's general, Malik ibn Ashter, accused Jarir of having wasted time in effeminate pleasures with Muawiyah, and said that Muawiyah had purposely kept Jarir in Syria long enough to mature his plans of hostilities[citation needed]. Under attack from Ashter, Jarir was forced to leave Kufa, so he joined Muawiyah in Syria.

Uthman's blood-stained shirt was still hanging in the Damascus mosque, and Muawiyah's army had pleged an oath that they would not wash or sleep a night at home, until the murderers of Uthman were brought to justice[citation needed]. Moreover, they also swore to bring to justice all those who sheltered the murderers - by which they meant Ali ibn Abi Talib and his followers. So, seeing that war was inevitable, Ali gathered his forces, and, after at first planning to invade Syria from the North, he attacked directly, marching through the Mesopotamian desert. Arriving at Riqqa, on the banks of the Euphrates, the Syrian vanguard was sighted, but it withdrew without engagement. The people of Riqqa were hostile to Ali, and his army had great difficulty crossing the river. Eventually, Malik ibn Ashter threatened the townspeople with death, which forced their co-operation[citation needed]. So, finally, the army managed to cross the river, by means of a bridge of boats. Ali's army then marched along the right bank of the Euphrates, until they came across the Syrian outpost of Sur al-Rum, where there was a brief skirmish, but Ali's advance was not slowed. So in Dhu al-Hijjah 36 (May 657), the army of Ali ibn Abi Talib came into sight of Muawiyah’s main forces, which were encamped on the river plain at Siffin.

[edit] The fight for the river

Muawiyah had stationed his general, Amr ibn al-Aas, with 10,000 men on the river to stop Ali ibn Abi Talib's army having access to the water. Ali ibn Abi Talib sent Sasaa ibn Sauhan al-Abdi to persuade Muawiyah that he should allow Ali's army access, as they, like Muawiyah's army, were Muslims. Ali further claimed that if the situation had been reversed, the river would have been open to both armies[citation needed]. However, Muawiyah sent back a message that the murderers of Uthman had not allowed him any water when they had laid siege to his house, and Muawiyah was avenging that action[citation needed]. Whether or not the participants were truthful in their claims, this situation meant that Muawiyah had the strategic upper hand, as Ali's army could not long stay in the area without access to water. Ali had no choice but to attack.

Ali ibn Abi Talib gave command of his army to the general Malik ibn Ashter, who led the attack. After heavy fighting, Amr's forces were dislodged from the river banks. Now having control of the water supply, Ali ibn Abi Talib kept to his word and allowed access to the water for Muawiyah’s side[citation needed]. Moreover, Ali did not immediately press forwards with his attack. Instead, he sent out Bashir ibn Amr, Sa'id ibn Qais and Shabus ibn Rabi as ambassadors to negotiate peace. However, Muawiyah was unwilling to meet with this delegation, and so a new delegation was sent, under Adi ibn Hatim, Yazid bin Qais, Ziyad ibn Hufza and Shabis ibn Rad. However, negotiations once again proved fruitless. Muawiyah repeated his demands that the murderers of Uthman be brought to justice, but Ali's ambassadors alleged that Muawiyah had no interest in justice and was simply intent on taking the Caliphate for himself[citation needed]. This enraged Muawiyah. "Begone, ye lying scoundrels!" he is supposed to have cried; "the sword shall decide between us."[citation needed] Despite this, Ali continued to send deputations to negotiate peace, and the two armies remained encamped facing each other for 110 days.

However, even as the peace negotiations were taking place, there were at least 90 skirmishes between tribal columns in the two armies. There was no general battle between the two armies, however, but rather hostilities did not go beyond this sporadic fighting. Nevertheless, many lives were lost on both sides, and the peace negotiations remained deadlocked. Ali's army was mostly made up of Bedouin tribesmen, most of whom were sympathetic to the deposition of Uthman. It seems that under their influence, Ali's position began to harden.

[edit] The main engagement

Ali made one final demand for Muawiyah's army to submit to him as Caliph, but they refused[citation needed]. As a result, on 8th Safar 36 (26 July 657) Ali gave the order for a full attack, and the major part of the Battle of Siffin began. The battle lasted all day, and into the night. The fighting lulled a little in the darkness, but started again even more fiercely the following day. Despite his age (he was now 58) Ali attacked personally with his Medinan troops in the centre, with his troops from Basra and Kufa on the flanks. Muawiyah watched the battle from a pavilion on the field, surrounded by his Personal Guard. Amr ibn al-Aas led Muawiyah's cavalry against the Kufa flank with great success, and almost broke through to kill Ali. However, Ali's personal bravery inspired his troops, and the attack was stalled[citation needed]. At the head of the Basra troops was Ashter and 300 qari (reciters), who led the assault on Muawiyah's forced. The attack was quite successful, and almost forced Muawiyah to flee the battlefield, but the bravery of his bodyguards and Amr saved the situation.

The fighting continued fiercely onto a third day, and casualties mounted, including Hashim ibn Utba and Ammar ibn Yasir, both Companions of the Prophet. Both sides had by now ran out of ammunition for their quivers and so the battle was fought hand-to-hand[citation needed]. Although Muawiyah's forces were numerically superior, Ali's forces were greatly inspired by Ashter, and gave no ground. In the surviving accounts of the battle, each writer praises his own tribe and condemns the others; but all agree on the bravery of Ashter[citation needed]. Both Ali and Muawiyah were unhappy at the heavy losses both sides were taking, but Muawiyah was particularly dejected, believing that the battle would eventually be lost. So Amr al-Aas suggested that single combat between the two leaders could resolve the battle without further bloodshed, but Muawiyah was unwilling to do this. Both men were old but Ali was still vigorous and almost certain to win such a duel against Muawiyah, who was unfit and overweight. But Muawiyah did take Amr's second suggestion - he told his bodyguards to put pages from the Qu'ran on their lances, and shout "The law of the Lord! That shall decide between us!" By this it was meant that the two sides should cease fighting and settle matters by peaceful arbitration under Islamic law. Muawiyah and Amr did not necessarily think that all of Ali's army would accept an arbitration, but they were sure that some of them would favour this, and so at the least it would cause dissension in Ali's army[citation needed].

However, the plan worked better than Muawiyah and Amr had hoped, because Ali's entire army quickly began chanting along with Muawiyah's men. Ali urged his army to fight on, saying that Muawiyah was simply using a trick and was on the point of defeat, but the soldiers did not listen. In fact, many of Ali's best soldiers were the keenest to make an arbitration. Ali and Ashter spent a long time arguing against their men, but they could not change their minds. In fact the soldiers became impatient and attacked Ashter with whips, calling him a warmonger[citation needed]. They even threatened to send Ali to Muawiyah as a prisoner if he did not accept the arbitration[citation needed]. With his army in mutiny against him, Ali had no choice but to accept the arbitration. So not only had Muawiyah managed to gain an arbitration, he had greatly weakened Ali's position with his own supporters.

[edit] Conclusion

Ali ibn Abi Talib wanted his kinsman Abdullah ibn Abbas or Malik ibn Ashter to represent him in the arbitration, but the army rejected these candidates. Ashter was a regicide, and so was implacably opposed to Muawiyah, who would have had him executed. And Abdullah was Ali's close relation and so tied very closely to his cause. As a result, the soldiers feared that these men would advance Ali's claims too strongly and be unwilling to compromise - and so the war would continue. So Ali's men insisted that Abu Musa Ash'ari be chosen as the representative[citation needed]. Like most of the soldiers, Abu Musa was a Bedouin, and thought to be truly committed to peace. However, he was of questionable loyalty to Ali and had deserted him previously. Meanwhile, Muawiyah appointed his general Amr al-Aas to represent him. As a result, Muawiyah's position in arbitration was much stronger from the beginning. This was a great personal humiliation for Ali, not only in that his men denied him the choice of his own representative, but because the peace treaty that Ali signed did not recognise him as Caliph, but merely placed Ali and Muawiyah as equal combatants in a war. Ali retired to Kufa, Muawiyah to Damascus.

Although Ali got the better of the actual fighting, and the end result of the battle was inconclusive, it was in fact Muawiyah who emerged from the battle in much the stronger position. Ali had failed to subdue Syria, and his supporters were now divided. Many of Ali's closest followers were disgusted by the peace treaty, including the loyal Ashter, who is supposed to have stated "I shall never acknowledge that this is my right hand, if it should touch such a document as this [peace treaty]."[citation needed] Meanwhile the army had been able to mutiny and dictate policy. Ali ibn Abi Talib had conducted himself with great dignity, but he had not been able to keep his own followers united, let alone unite all Muslims under his leadership - which had been his goal in invading Syria.

[edit] Aftermath

On the march back to Kufa, Ali's army became sharply divided. Now that the battle was over, many of the soldiers - particularly the Bedouin - regretted agreeing to the arbitration, because they did not see it as proper under Islam. They said that the leadership of the Muslim world was not Ali's personal property to bargain over with Muawiyah, as rival (secular) kings might - rather, their aim in overthrowing Uthman had been to establish a truly religious government[citation needed]. A group of 12,000 soldiers broke away from the main army, and instead went to the nearby village of Harura. After great efforts, Ali managed to pacify these soldiers and persuade them to rejoin his army, but it proved only temporary.

For the next six months, Muawiyah ruled over Syria, Ali over the rest of the Muslim Empire. In Ramadan 37 (February 658), the umpires arrived at Dumat-al-Jondel, along with a huge number of interested spectators. The two umpires met alone in a specially elected pavilion. The preserved account is brief and uncertain[citation needed], but it seems that Amr began by pressing Abu Musa to admit that Uthman was foully murdered, and that hence Muawiyah should succeed as his kinsman. Abu Musa rejected this, saying that succession to the Caliphate is not a matter of lineage but the vote of the Companions of the Prophet. Amr then went through all the possible candidates (apart from Ali and Muawiyah), and Abu Musa rejected each in turn. So Amr then asked Abu Musa what his solution was. Abu Musa replied that they should depose both Ali and Muawiyah, and allow the people to choose freely whoever they wanted as Caliph. Amr quickly agreed.

However, when it came time to announce this decision, Amr betrayed Abu Musa. First, Abu Musa stated his idea of deposing both men; then Amr is supposed to have said "You have heard the declaration of Abu Musa. He has deposed his leader [Ali]; and I too depose him. But as for my leader, Muawiyah, I confirm him. He is the heir to Uthman, the avenger of his blood, and the best entitled to succeed as Caliph."[citation needed] This astonished the crowd, and Abu Musa, ashamed at being tricked in this way, retired to Mecca and spent the rest of his days in obscurity.

However, Ali remained recognised as Caliph and Muawiyah did not claim the title - but now Ali's position was weakened even more. It further estranged him from his supporters, and the 12,000 soldiers who had broken away became the nucleus of a new religious sect, the Kharijites (dissenters) who rejected all Caliphs, and constantly rebelled against Ali, enabling Muawiyah to take Egypt. Muawiyah and Ali continued to be hostile to one another, making their followers curse each other during prayers[citation needed], but never again did they fight a major battle. For the rest of Ali's life, the Muslim Empire was divided between the two men, with Muawiyah ruling Syria and Egypt, and Ali increasingly struggling to rule the rest. In 661, the Kharijites assassinated Ali, and the Muslim empire was reunited, with Muawiyah elected as Caliph. However, the Shia believe that the Caliphate should have passed to one of Ali's sons, Hassan ibn Ali and Hussain ibn Ali. The Shia do not recognise Muawiyah as a legitimate Caliph, but regard him as a despicable figure[citation needed]. Sunni opinion on Muawiyah is more complicated, as he is recognised as a legitimate Caliph only after Ali, and he is the first Caliph not described by the Sunnis as Rashidun ("Rightly Guided").

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

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