Succession to Muhammad
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- For the book by Wilferd Madelung, see The Succession to Muhammad.
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The Succession to Muhammad concerns the different viewpoints and beliefs that are held in relation to the succession to the leadership of the Muslim community, or ummah, after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
Muhammad died in 632 CE. in Medina following a brief illness. After an initial period of confusion, command of the Muslim community passed to Abu Bakr, Muhammad's father-in-law and one of the leaders of the Ummah. In later centuries there was sharp disagreement as to how this transition came about and whether or not it was legitimate.
The Shi'a, or Shi'at Ali, the party of Ali, believe that Muhammad divinely ordained his cousin and son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, in accordance with God's command, making Ali and his descendents Muhammad's true successors (caliphs). The largest denomination in Islam, the Sunnis, hold that Abu Bakr and all caliphs should be chosen by community consensus, that this method of choosing or electing leaders (Shura) is endorsed by the Quran.
This article provides a summary of the sources and arguments for particular versions of the succession to Muhammad. It is not intended to provide a forum for arbitration or discussion as to who should have succeeded Muhammad.
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[edit] Problems with the historical record
There is no known contemporary written account of the events of 632. Instead, the events were communicated through collections of recorded oral traditions (see Hadith) for more than a century; the first written records date from a period long after the disputed succession. Indeed, they date from the beginning of the Abbasid line of caliphs in 750, who had overthrown the previous Umayyad line reportedly for their misdeeds, and claimed authority as descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas.
The histories were thus composed in a sectarian milieu, for intensely political purposes. They have since been interpreted and elaborated by several Islamic groups, including the various Sunni and Shi'a sects. For these reasons it is extremely difficult to present an accurate historical account of the succession without descending into the thick of partisan controversy. See also Historiography of early Islam and Historical Shi'a-Sunni relations.
[edit] An overview of events
The matter of Muhammad's successor was probably a relatively minor consideration when Muhammad and his followers had been a small, persecuted community. Muhammad did not hold what may now be called civil authority, and had no significant estate to bequeath. He had proclaimed himself a prophet, but it was not at all clear that a prophet must always have a successor. However, after Muhammad and his followers emigrated from Mecca to Medina in the Hijra, and Muhammad emerged as the political leader of a community expanding rapidly in size and power, the succession issue became increasingly important.
The debate and controversy as to what if any arrangements Muhammad made for a successor have continued to this day.
Similarly contentious are the various accounts of the events which immediately surrounded his death. Muhammad did not have a long illness; he died merely two weeks after falling ill. Following his death, there appears to have been a period of suspense or, according to some accounts, confusion. Umar, one of his lieutenants, is said to have been overcome with grief, denying that Muhammad could have died, and refusing to allow the burial of the body. Sunni and Shi'a Muslims debate whether this grief was genuine, or whether it may have been a play for time while succession was determined.
Virtually all authorities agree that after Muhammad's death, previously dormant tensions between the Meccan immigrants, the Muhajirun, and the Medinan converts, the Ansar, threatened to break out and split the Ummah. The Ansar, the leaders of the tribes of Medinah, met in a hall or house called saqifah, to discuss whom they would support as their new leader. When Abu Bakr was informed of the meeting, he, Umar and a few others rushed to prevent the Ansar from making a premature decision. Accounts of this meeting vary greatly. All agree that during the meeting Umar declared that Abu Bakr should be the new leader, and declared his allegiance to Abu Bakr.
After the meeting at Saqifah, the Muslims who were not present were asked to submit to Abu Bakr, to give their bay'ah. Most accounts agree that Ali ibn Abi Talib and his supporters initially refused to submit. After a period of time, whose duration is disputed, the dissidents gave their bay'ah. Whether or not the process involved violence and intimidation, and whether or not Ali willingly swore allegiance to Abu Bakr have remained enduring controversies.
[edit] The Sunni view of the succession
Sunni Muslims relate various hadith, or oral traditions, in which Muhammad is said to have recommended shura, elections or consultation, as the best method for making community decisions. In this view of the succession, he did not nominate a successor because he expected that the community themselves would choose the new leader — as was the custom in Arabia at the time. Some Sunnis argue that Muhammad had indicated his reliance upon Abu Bakr as second in command in many ways; he had called upon Abu Bakr to lead prayers and to make rulings in his (Muhammad's) absence. There are some hadiths asserting that Muhammad said that some would be desirous of power but he knew that God (and the Muslims) would make Abu Bakr the next leader (see Hadiths of Abu Bakr's succession). Sunnis point to the fact that the majority of the people accepted Abu-Bakr as their leader as proof that his selection was wise and just.
[edit] Ghadir Khumm
There is one hadith in the collection known as the Musnad which affirms that Muhammad made a speech at Ghadir Khumm, in which he said, "Of whomsoever I am the mawla, Ali is his mawla". The word mawla has many meanings in Arabic. In this case, say the Sunni scholars, Muhammad was merely saying that anyone who was his friend should also befriend Ali. This was a response to some soldiers who had complained about Ali [1]. A similar incident is described in Ibn Ishaq's Sirah; there the prophet is reputed to have said, "Do not blame Ali, for he is too scrupulous in the things of God, or the way of God, to be blamed." (Guillaume p. 650)
The Sunnis argue that it is a mistake to interpret an expression of friendship and support as the appointment of a successor. If Muhammad had wished to appoint Ali, surely he would have done so in Medina, in front of all the Muslim notables. The fact that there even was a dispute over the leadership after the prophet's death is sufficient proof that no one had interpreted Muhammad's words as a binding appointment.
[edit] Muhammad's last illness
Muhammad asked permission from his wives to be taken to Aisha's apartment to be nursed and died with his head in her lap. Aisha kept his relatives away from him, on the argument that they were tormenting him with useless remedies. Reportedly, before he died, Muhammad made a gesture of enormous trust in Abu Bakr by asking him to lead the prayers in the mosque as imam — a highly visible role virtually always undertaken, when possible, by Muhammad himself. Historically, the imam of a mosque has always been a leader in his local Muslim community; Sunni Muslims see Muhammad as recognizing Abu Bakr's leadership when he appointed Abu Bakr an imam. [2]
[edit] The events at Saqifah
The originally Medinan Muslims, the Ansar, held a meeting to discuss choosing a new leader among themselves, to rule their part of the community. When the news of the meeting spread, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Abu Ubayda rushed to the scene. Abu Bakr argued that if the Ansar chose a leader, to lead the Ansar only, the Muslim community would split. The new leader must come from the Quraysh, Muhammad's clan; any other choice would destroy the community. Sa'd agreed to this. Abu Bakr suggested to the gathering that the people should choose either Umar or Abu Ubayda, as both were capable men of the Quraysh. Umar immediately grabbed Abu Bakr's hand and gave him bay'ah (declared his allegiance; an Arabian custom) causing the rest of the men at the gathering to also give their bay'ah. Umar later described this process as a falta, a rushed and hasty decision. However, this decision would not have been binding upon there rest of the Muslims unless they themselves chose to give their bay'ah, which all save the supporters of Ali did. According to the Sunni, this is the proof that the decision was the right one.
[edit] Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr and Umar
Ali was extremely distressed not only to have been passed over for the leadership, but not even to have been consulted. Most accounts, Sunni or Shi'a, say that Ali initially refused to give his bay'ah to Abu Bakr. Sunni accounts say that after a period during which he withdrew from public affairs, Ali eventually decided to cooperate with Abu Bakr and give his public submission. One version of the story is found in an oral tradition collected by Bukhari, [3]m.
Sunni accounts say that after giving his oath, Ali supported and advised Abu Bakr, as he did for the two caliphs who succeeded Abu Bakr (Umar and Uthman). They reject Shi'a views stating that Ali never gave his submission, or gave it only unwillingly and thereafter retired from public affairs rather than help those he regarded as usurpers.
[edit] Other Sunni arguments against Ali
Sunni controversialists also claim that Ali's support stemmed only from his marriage to Fatima, Muhammad's daughter, and that he had alienated many of his supporters by seeking to marry Abu Jahl's daughter as a second wife. (See Hadith of loving and hating Ali and Sahih Bukhari 5:57:76.)
[edit] The Shi'a view of the succession
The Shi'a believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe that God chose Ali to be the successor, infallible and divinely chosen. Thus, before he died, Muhammad, in accordance with God’s will, declared at various times, and in various ways, Ali as his successor.
Ali was a leader in battle, and often entrusted with command. He was left in charge of the community at Medina when Muhammad led a raid on Tabuk. Ali was also his cousin, and the husband of his daughter Fatima, and the father of his beloved grandchildren Hasan and Husayn. It is worthwhile noting that the terms "cousin" and "son-in-law" do not fully convey the closeness of the relationship between Muhammad and Ali. Ali's father was the late Abu Talib, Muhammad's uncle, foster father, and powerful protector. As a member of Abu Talib's family, Muhammad had in fact played the role of an elder brother and guardian to Ali — and Ali had, as a youth, been among the first to accept Islam. He was now a charismatic defender of the faith in his own right, and it was perhaps inevitable that some in the Muslim community assumed that Ali would claim a leadership position following Muhammad's death. In the end, however, it was Abu Bakr who assumed control of the Muslim community.
The Shia refer to these verses from the Qu'ran to make their argument on Qur'anic grounds: (5:55), (5:3), (5:67). They say that the verses refer to Ali, and the last two verses were revealed at Ghadir Khumm. [4]
[edit] Ghadir Khumm
In 632 CE, Muhammad made his last pilgrimage to the Kaaba. Some early accounts say that after finishing his pilgrimage, on his return to Medina, he and his followers stopped at a spring and waypoint called Ghadir Khumm. Here Muhammad delivered a speech to his assembled followers, in the course of which the Shia interpret some of the words said as;
- "...for whoever I am his master, Ali is his master..."
According to the Shi'a, this hadith, Hadith-i ghadir, indicates the intent of the Prophet Muhammad. The Shi'a say that there were 120,000 witnesses to this declaration, including Umar ibn al-Khattāb and Abu Bakr. Sunnis argee that something like this event occurred but differ as to its interpretation.
[edit] Muhammad's last illness
Soon after returning from this pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill. He was nursed in the apartment of his wife Aisha, the daughter of Abu Bakr.
The Shi'a claim that most of the prominent men among the Muslims, expecting Muhammad's death and an ensuing struggle for power, disobeyed his orders to join a military expedition bound for Syria. They stayed in Medina, waiting for Muhammad's death and their chance to seize power.
According to Ali's relative and partisan, Ibn al-Abbas, the dying Muhammad said that he wished to write a letter — or wished to have a letter written — detailing his wishes for his community. According to the Shi'a, Umar insisted that the Qur'an was guidance enough, Umar also claimed that Muhammad was ill and delirious and that his wishes could therefore be ignored. Those in the sickroom began quarreling and the prophet, irritated by the noise, ordered them all to leave him.
When Muhammad died, Umar seemed to go mad with grief. He claimed that Muhammad was not dead, that he would return. Abu Bakr, who had just returned to Medina, then spoke sharply to him and Umar repented. The Shi'a say that all this was a ploy on Umar's part to delay the funeral and give Abu Bakr (who was outside the city) time to return to Medina.
[edit] The events at Saqifah
When Muhammad died, his closest relatives, Ali and Fatima, took charge of the body. While they were engaged in washing the body and preparing it for burial, say the Shi'a, Abu Bakr and Umar invaded a meeting at Saqifah, proposed Abu Bakr as the new leader, and pressured those assembled to submit, manhandling one of the Medinan elders who opposed them. Ali was not told of the meeting, and his name was not mentioned as one of those eligible for the leadership, despite what the Shia argue was Muhammad's clear words at Ghadir Khumm.
[edit] Persecution of the Shi'at Ali
Many of the Muslims of Medina refused to give their allegiance, their bay'ah, to Abu Bakr — as did Ali. They were known as the Shi'at Ali, the party of Ali. The Shi'a say that it took six months of threat and pressure to force the refusers to submit to Abu Bakr. Umar roamed the streets of Medina with his warriors, they say, threatening the holdouts. He even threatened to burn down Fatima's house unless Ali came out and submitted to Abu Bakr. Ali refused; Umar pushed his way into the house; Fatima, who was heavily pregnant, was crushed behind the door. She miscarried her unborn son, whom the Shi'a mourn as Al Muhsin. She had been injured by Umar and soon died. Ali buried her at night, secretly, as he did not wish Abu Bakr or Umar, whom he blamed for her death, to attend her funeral. The Shi'a thus blame Abu Bakr and Umar for the death of Muhammad's daughter and grandson.[citation needed]
[edit] Ali submits for the sake of his followers
Some Shi'a believe that Ali took pity upon the sufferings of his devoted followers and gave his submission, his bay'ah, to Abu Bakr,which can be still held doubtful as Fatima, Ali's wife and daughter of Muhammed wasn't very pleased with Abu Bakr [5] when he refused to give her right to inheritance of garden of Fadak and neither was Ali in view of his right of succession being taken away [6]. It may be because of the sake of unity that he might have helped them in matters of jurisprudence and administration but could never admit his obedience to them. Other Shi'a say that Ali did not give his allegiance, but only refrained from pressing his claims. Whatever happened, superficial unity was restored.
[edit] Ali's relationship with Abu Bakr and Umar
Shi'a believe that Ali kept aloof from Abu Bakr and Umar so long as they lived. They had prevented him from assuming leadership of the Muslim community (which he believed his duty as much as his right), they had persecuted his followers, and above all, their persecution had led to the death of his wife Fatima. Shi'a historians argue that Ali's daughter did not marry Umar, nor did he name his sons after Abu Bakr and Umar; his sons were given common Arab names.
[edit] The role of hadith
The Shi'a point to a number of hadith that, they believe, show that Muhammad had left specific instructions as to his successor. These hadiths have been given names: Ghadir Khumm, Safinah, Thaqalayn, Haqq, Manzilah, Hadith-i da'wat-i 'ashirah, and others.
Many of these oral traditions are also accepted by Sunni Muslims. However, the Sunni do not accept the Shi'a interpretation of these hadith.
[edit] Western academic views
Western academics have, until recently, taken their cues from the Sunni versions of Islamic history. Until the 1950s and 1960s, many scholars tended to translate and expound on Sunni texts as if these were the only Islamic texts worth studying, and generally tended to treat them as reliable[citation needed]. Then followed the age of doubt, when historians like Wansbrough and Crone took an independent, agnostic line, throwing doubt on the Sunni consensus and proposing daring theories about the Qur'an[citation needed]. Of late, the pendulum has swung somewhat the other way[citation needed].
Many contemporary scholars who have sifted through the early Muslim historical writings are proposing narratives that are closer to the received versions. In most cases, this has meant a swing back towards the Sunni version of events. However, one recent publication, The Succession to Muhammad by Wilferd Madelung, Laudian Professor of Arabic at Oxford, examines the course of events from 632, and the death of Muhammad, through the rise of the Umayyads — and rehabilitates some of the Shi'a narratives.
[edit] References
[edit] Academic books
- Guillaume, A., The Life of Muhammad, Oxford University Press, 1955
- Madelung, W., The Succession to Muhammad, Cambridge University Press, 1997
- Nasr, S. H., Muhammad: Man of God, 1995.
- Nasr, S. H., Expectation of the Millennium: Shi'Ism in History, State University of New York Press, 1989.
[edit] Shi'a books
- Shi'a Islam (book), by Allameh Tabatabaei and Seyyed Hossein Nasr, State University of New York Press, 1979
- Al-Murāja'āt: A Shī'i-Sunni Dialogue by Sayyid 'Abdul-Husayn Sharafud-Dīn al-Mūsawi, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- Peshawar Nights by Sultanu'l-Wa'izin Shirazi, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- Ask those who know by Muhammad al-Tijani al-Samawi, 2001, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- To be with the Truthful by Muhammad al-Tijani al-Samawi, 2000, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- The Shi'a: The Real Followers of the Sunnah by Muhammad al-Tijani al-Samawi, 2000, Ansariyan Publications: Qum, Iran.
- Imamate and Leadership by Mujtaba Musavi Lari
[edit] Sunni books
- The Sealed Nectar by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, 2002, Darussalam Publications.
- Sahih Al-Bukhari Translated by Dr. Muhammad Muhsin Khan, 1997, Darussalam Publications
