Christianity and alcohol

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Throughout the first 1800 years of church history, Christians shared the Bible's tension over alcoholic beverages: although they considered alcohol a gift from God that makes life more joyous, they also considered drunkenness a sin. During the same period, Christians nearly always used wine (that is, fermented grape juice) in their central rite – the Eucharist or Lord's Supper.^[1][2] Around the time of the Second Great Awakening, some Protestant Christians moved from this historical position of allowing moderate use of alcohol (sometimes called moderationism) either to deciding imbibing was unwise in the present circumstances (abstentionism) or to prohibiting all ordinary consumption of alcohol because it was believed to be a sin (prohibitionism).^[3] Today, all three of these positions exist within Christendom, but the historic position remains the most common worldwide.

Contents 1 Alcohol in the Christian Scriptures 1.1 Lexigraphy 1.1.1 Hebrew 1.1.2 Greek 1.1.3 Discussion 1.2 Drunkenness 1.3 Sacrifices and feasts 1.4 Vows and duties 1.5 Symbolism and metaphor 1.6 In the apocryphal/deuterocanonical books 2 Winemaking in biblical times 3 Alcohol in Christian history and tradition 3.1 Before Christ 3.2 In the early church 3.3 In the Middle Ages 3.4 In the Reformation 3.5 In Colonial America 3.6 In the 1800s 4 Current views 4.1 Moderationism 4.1.1 Comparison 4.2 Abstentionism 4.2.1 Comparison 4.3 Prohibitionism 5 References

[edit] Alcohol in the Christian Scriptures

Part of the series on Communion

also known as "The Eucharist" or "The Lord's Supper"

Theology Transubstantiation Consecration Words of Institution Real Presence Impanation Memorialism Consubstantiation Sacramental Union Transignification

Theologies contrasted Eucharist (Catholic Church) Anglican Eucharistic theology

Important theologians Paul ·Aquinas Augustine · Calvin Chrysostom · Cranmer Luther · Zwingli

Related Articles Christianity Christianity and alcohol Catholic Historic Roots Closed and Open Table Divine Liturgy Eucharistic adoration Eucharistic discipline First Communion Infant Communion Mass · Sacrament Sanctification

In most branches of Christendom, the Bible is authoritative on moral matters to some degree, and so nearly all Christians base their views of alcohol, in whole, or in part, on their understanding of what the Bible says about it. Hence it is the single most important source related to the several Christian views of alcohol, followed by Christian tradition.

Alcoholic beverages appear repeatedly in the Christian Scriptures from Noah planting a vineyard and getting drunk^[4] to Jesus miraculously making copious amounts^[5] of wine at the wedding at Cana.^[6] On the whole, the Bible is ambivalent toward intoxicating drinks, considering them both a blessing from God that brings merriment and a potentially dangerous substance that can be unwisely and sinfully abused.^{[7][8][9][10]}

[edit] Lexigraphy

The Bible uses several words in its original languages to refer to different types of alcoholic beverages. Some of these words have overlapping meaning, particularly the words in Hebrew compared to the words in Koine Greek.

[edit] Hebrew

The Old Testament was largely written in Hebrew with portions in Aramaic, and it uses several words to represent alcoholic beverages:

Hebrew	Transliteration	Strong's no.	Meaning[11]	References
יין	yayin	3196	the common word translated "wine" in the Old Testament; related either to the Hebrew word meaning "to boil up" and "to be in a ferment" or to the root meaning "to tread out" since the grapes' juice was trodden out by foot.[12]	Ge 9:21; Ex 29:40; Lv 10:9; Nu 6:3; Dt 14:26; Jos 9:4; Jg 13:4; 1Sa 1:14; 1Ch 9:29; Ps 75:8; Pr 4:17; SS 1:2; Is 5:11; Ho 4:11; Jl 1:5; etc.
תירוש	tirosh	8492	properly "must"; sometimes rendered as "wine," "new wine," or "sweet wine." It can represent juice at any stage in the fermentation process,[13] and in some places it "represents wine made from the first drippings of the juice before the winepress was trodden. As such it would be particularly potent."[14] This word has been "traced to a root meaning 'to take possession of' and hence it is supposed that tirosh is so designated because in intoxicating it takes possession of the brain."[12] Compare Ho 4:11.	Ge 27:28; Dt 28:51; 33:28; 2Ch 32:28; Pr 3:10; Is 36:17; Jl 2:19; Ho 4:11; Mi 6:15; etc.
שכר	sekar or shekar	7941	"strong drink"; "denotes any inebriating drink with about 7-10 percent alcoholic content, not hard liquor, because there is no evidence of distilled liquor in ancient times.... It was made from either fruit and/or barley beer";[15] the term can include wine as in Nu 28:7, but generally it is used in combination with it ("wine and strong drink") to encompass all varieties of intoxicants[16]	Lv 10:9; Nu 6:3; Dt 14:26; Jg 13:4; 1Sa 1:15; Ps 69:12; Pr 20:1; Is 5:11; Mi 2:11; etc.
חמר	chemer corresponding to the Aramaic chamar	2561 and 2562	"wine"; the word "conveys the idea of 'foaming,' as in the process of fermentation, or when poured out. It is derived from the root hamar, meaning 'to boil up,' and also 'to be red,' from the idea of boiling or becoming inflamed."[12]	Dt 32:14; Is 27:2; Ezr 6:9; 7:22; Da 5:1,2,4
עסיס	'asis	6071	"sweet wine" or "new wine", the vintage of the current year with intoxicating power[12]	SS 8:2; Is 49:26; Jl 1:5; 3:18; Am 9:13
חמץ	chomets	2558	vinegar, which was made from wine or other fermented beverage and used as a condiment or, when mixed with water, a slightly intoxicating drink[17][18][19]	Nu 6:3; Ru 2:14; Ps 69:21; Pr 10:26; 25:20
שמר	shemar (used in the plural: shemarim)	8105	lees or dregs of wine; "wine that has been kept on the lees, and therefore old wine"[12] ("if [the wine] were designed to be kept for some time a certain amount of lees was added to give it body")[20]	Ps 75:8; Is 25:6; Jr 48:11; Zp 1:12
סבא	sobhe	5435	drink, liquor, wine	Is 1:22; Ho 4:18; Na 1:10
ממסך	mesekh	4469 and 4538	"mixed drink," "mixed wine," "drink-offering;" the word is "properly a mixture of wine and water with spices that increase its stimulating properties."[12]	Ps 75:8; Pr 23:30; Is 65:11
מזג	mezeg	4197	"mixture", "mixed wine"	SS 7:2

[edit] Greek

The New Testament was written in Koine Greek and uses three words that represent alcoholic beverages:

Greek	Transliteration	Strong's no.	Meaning[21]	References
οίνος	oinos	3631	The common word translated "wine" in the New Testament.[12][22][23]	Mt 9:17; Mk 2:22; Lk 1:15; Jn 2:3; Ro 14:21; Ep 5:18; 1Ti 3:8; Ti 2:3; Re 6:6; etc.
γλευκος	gleukos	1098	"sweet wine" (sometimes rendered "new wine"), which was intoxicating.[12][24]	Ac 2:13
σίκερα	sikera	4608	"strong drink."[25]	Lk 1:15
όξος	oxos	3690	vinegar, sour wine; could be made from grape wine or other fermented beverages; when mixed with water, it was a common, cheap drink of the poor and of the Roman soldiers[26][18][19][27]	Mt 27:48; Mk 15:36; Lu 23:36; Jn 19:29f

[edit] Discussion

Yayin and oinos (which also usually translates yayin and tirosh in the Septuagint)^[13] are commonly translated "wine," but the two are rarely, and perhaps figuratively or anticipatorily,^[28] used in the Bible to refer to freshly pressed juice.^[29] For this reason, prohibitionists and some abstentionists object to taking the default meaning to be fermented beverages,^[30][31] but there is a broad scholarly consensus that the words did ordinarily refer to alcoholic beverages.^{[8][10][12][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41]}

[edit] Drunkenness

Easton's Bible Dictionary says, "The sin of drunkenness ... must have been not uncommon in the olden times, for it is mentioned either metaphorically or literally more than seventy times in the Bible,"^[12][42] though it apparently was a "vice of the wealthy rather than of the poor."^[43] All Christians agree that the Bible condemns ordinary drunkenness in passages such as these (all from the NIV):

• Proverbs 20:1: "Wine is a mocker and beer a brawler; whoever is led astray by them is not wise."
• Proverbs 23:20f: "Do not join those who drink too much wine or gorge themselves on meat, for drunkards and gluttons become poor, and drowsiness clothes them in rags."
• Proverbs 23:29f: "Who has woe? Who has sorrow? Who has strife? Who has complaints? Who has needless bruises? Who has bloodshot eyes? Those who linger over wine, who go to sample bowls of mixed wine."
• Isaiah 5:11f: "Woe to those who rise early in the morning to run after their drinks, who stay up late at night till they are inflamed with wine. They have harps and lyres at their banquets, tambourines and flutes and wine, but they have no regard for the deeds of the LORD, no respect for the work of his hands."
• Hosea 5:2,5: "But they do not realize that I [God] remember all their evil deeds.... On the day of the festival of our king the princes become inflamed with wine, and he joins hands with the mockers."
• Luke 21:34: "Be on guard, so that your hearts will not be weighted down with dissipation and drunkenness and the worries of life, and that day [of Christ's return] will not come on you suddenly like a trap."
• Romans 13:13: "Let us behave decently, as in the daytime, not in orgies and drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and debauchery, not in dissension and jealousy."
• 1 Corinthians 5:11: "But now I am writing you that you must not associate with anyone who calls himself a brother but is ... a drunkard.... With such a man do not even eat."
• 1 Corinthians 6:9f: "Do you not know that the wicked will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived: Neither ... the greedy nor drunkards ... will inherit the kingdom of God."
• Galatians 5:19-21: "The acts of the sinful nature are obvious: ... drunkenness, orgies, and the like. I warn you, as I did before, that those who live like this will not inherit the kingdom of God."
• Ephesians 5:18: "Do not get drunk on wine, which leads to debauchery. Instead, be filled with the Spirit."
• 1 Timothy 3:2f: "Now the overseer [traditionally bishop] must be above reproach, the husband of but one wife, temperate, self-controlled, respectable, hospitable, able to teach, not given to drunkenness [etc.]."

Additionally, the consequences of the drunkenness of Noah^[4] and Lot^[44] "were intended to serve as examples of the dangers and repulsiveness of intemperance."^[45]

A disputed but important passage is Proverbs 31:4-7: "It is not for kings, O Lemuel — not for kings to drink wine, not for rulers to crave beer, lest they drink and forget what the law decrees, and deprive all the oppressed of their rights. Give beer to those who are perishing, wine to those who are in anguish; let them drink and forget their poverty and remember their misery no more." Some Christians assert that alcohol was prohibited to kings at all times,^[46] while others contend that only inappropriate use is in view here.^{[47][48][49][50]} Some Christians argue that the latter instructions regarding the perishing should be understood as sarcasm when compared with the preceding verses,^[51][52][30] while others contend the beer and wine are intended as a cordial to raise the spirits of the perishing,^[49][50][38] while some suggest that the Bible is here authorizing alcohol as an anesthetic.^{[46][38][53][54]} Moreover, some suggest that the wines that Jesus was offered at his crucifiction^[55] were also intended as an anesthetic.^{[49][53][56][57]}

In short, according to Christianity drunkenness "is not merely a disgusting personal habit and social vice, but a sin which bars the gates of Heaven, desecrates the body, which is now in a special sense the dwelling-place of the Holy Spirit, and stains the mystical body of Christ, the Church."^[58]

[edit] Sacrifices and feasts

Wine was commonly drunk at most meals,^[59] and the Old Testament prescribed it for use in festal celebrations and sacrificial rituals in the Old Testament.^[12] In particular, fermented wine was presented daily as a drink offering,^[60] as part of the firstfruits offering,^[61] and as part of various supplementary offerings.^[62] Wine itself was kept in the temple,^[63] and the king had his own private stores.^[64]

The banquet hall was called a "house of wine,"^[65] and wine was used as the usual drink at most secular and religious feasts, including feasts of celebration^[66] and hospitality,^[67] tithe celebrations,^[68] and official Jewish holidays such as Passover.^[69] Jesus instituted the Eucharist at the Last Supper, which took place at a Passover celebration, and set apart the bread and wine^[70][71][72] that were present there as symbols of the New Covenant. St. Paul later chides the Corinthians for becoming drunk on wine served at their attempted celebrations of the Lord's Supper.^[73]

The Bible also speaks of wine in general terms as a bringer and concomitant of joy, particularly in the context of nourishment and feasting:

• Judges 9:13 NASB (in a parable about a king): "But the vine said to them, 'Shall I leave my new wine, which cheers God and men, and go to wave over the trees?' "
• Psalm 4:7 (in a positive, a fortiori comparison): "You have filled my heart with greater joy than when their grain and new wine abound."
• Psalm 104:14f: "[The LORD] makes ... plants for man to cultivate — bringing forth food from the earth: wine that gladdens the heart of man, oil to make his face shine, and bread that sustains his heart."
• Ecclesiastes 9:7: "Go, eat your food with gladness, and drink your wine with a joyful heart, for it is now that God favors what you do."
• Ecclesiastes 10:19a: "A feast is made for laughter, and wine makes life merry."
• Zechariah 9:17: "How attractive and beautiful [the LORD's people] will be! Grain will make the young men thrive, and new wine the young women."
• Zechariah 10:7: "The Ephraimites will become like mighty men, and their hearts will be glad as with wine. Their children will see it and be joyful; their hearts will rejoice in the LORD."

[edit] Vows and duties

Certain persons in the Old Testament were forbidden to partake of wine because of their vows and duties. Kings were forbidden to abuse alcohol lest their judgments be unjust.^[74] It was forbidden to priests on duty,^[75] though the priests were given "the finest new wine" from the firstfruits offerings for drinking outside the tabernacle and temple.^[76]

The Naziritic vow excluded as part of its ascetic regimen not only wine, but also vinegar, grapes, and raisins,^[77] though when Nazirites completed the term of their vow, they were required to present wine as part of their sacrificial offerings and could drink of it.^[78] While John the Baptist adopted such a regimen,^[79] Jesus evidently did not.^[80][81]

The Rechabites, a sub-tribe of the Kenites, vowed never to drink wine, live in houses, or plant fields or vineyards,^[82] not because of any "threat to wise living" from these practices, but because of their commitment to a nomadic lifestyle by not being bound to any particular piece of land.^[8] The Rechabites' strict obedience to the command of their father (rather than their nomadism and abstentionism) is commended and is contrasted with the failure of Judah and Jerusalem to listen to their God.^[83]

During the Babylonian captivity, Daniel and his fellow Jews abstained from the meat and wine given to them by the king because they saw it as defiling in some way,^[84] though precisely how these would have defiled the Jews is not apparent in the text.^[85] A later passage implies that Daniel did drink wine at times, though it may not have been the king's.^[86]

Christians are instructed regarding abstinence and their duty toward immature Christians: "All food is clean, but it is wrong for a man to eat anything that causes someone else to stumble. It is better not to eat meat or drink wine or to do anything else that will cause your brother to fall."^[87][88]

[edit] Symbolism and metaphor

The commonness and centrality of wine in daily life in biblical times is apparent from its many postitive and negative metaphorical uses throughout the Bible.^[89][90] Positively, free wine is used as a symbol of divine grace,^[91] and wine is repeatedly compared to intimate love in the Song of Solomon.^[92] Negatively, wine is personified^[93] as a mocker ("[t]he most hardened apostate" in the Book of Proverbs whose chief sin is pride)^[94] and beer a brawler (one who is "mocking, noisy, and restless").^[8]

Additionally, the people and kingdom of God are compared to a divinely owned vine or vineyard in several places,^[95] and the image of new wine fermenting in new wineskins, a process that would burst old wineskins,^[96] represents that the new faith Jesus was bringing "cannot be contained within the framework of the old."^[97] The complacent – those who are "lax in doing the Lord's work"^[98] – are compared with "wine left on its dregs" too long such that it lacks a good taste and is of no value,^[99] and those who are corrupt are compared with "choice wine [that] is diluted with water."^[100]

Wine was also used as a symbol of blessing and judgment throughout the Bible. Melchizedek blessed and refreshed Abram's army with bread and wine;^[101] Isaac blessed Jacob by saying, "May God give you of heaven's dew and of earth's richness — an abundance of grain and new wine";^[102] and when Jacob blessed his sons, he used a great abundance of wine as a symbol of Judah's prosperity.^[103] The nation of Israel was promised abundant wine and other central crops such as grain and oil^[104] if they kepy God's covenant commandments,^[105] and their wine would be taken away as a curse if the Israelites failed to keep the covenant.^[106]

Drinking a cup of strong wine to the dregs and getting drunk are sometimes presented as a symbol of God's judgment and wrath,^[107] and Jesus alludes this cup of wrath, which he says he himself will drink, several times.^[108] Similarly, the winepress is pictured as a tool of judgment where the resulting wine symbolizes the blood of the wicked who were crushed^[109] (hence the famous line "He [the Lord] is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored" in "The Battle Hymn of the Republic").^[110] Connected also to the cup of judgment is the wine of immorality, which the evil drink and which both brings and is part of the wrath of God.^[111]

The Day of the Lord, which is often understood by Christians to usher in the Messianic Age, is depicted as a time when "[n]ew wine will drip from the mountains and flow from all the hills,"^[112] when God's people will "plant vineyards and drink their wine,"^[113] and when God himself "will prepare a feast of rich food for all peoples, a banquet of aged wine — the best of meats and the finest of wines."^[114]

In the New Testament, the Passover wine is used at the Last Supper to signify the "New Covenant in [Jesus'] blood,"^[115] but Christians differ over precisely how symbolic the wine is in the continuing ritual of the Eucharist (see Eucharistic theologies contrasted).^[116]

[edit] In the apocryphal/deuterocanonical books

Several books, which Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy refer to as a "deuterocanonical" and the Church of England as "semicanonical," are not accepted as an official part of the Jewish or Protestant canons (see Biblical apocrypha), but irrespective of their official standing, they are at the very least historical artifacts that have had significant influence among Jews and Christians alike^[117] and clarify views during the intertestamental period. Several of these books also mention alcoholic beverages, and in particular, the Sirach discusses the use of wine in several places,^[118] emphasizing joy and moderation: "Wine is very life to man if taken in moderation. Does he really live who lacks the wine which was created for his joy? Joy of heart, good cheer and merriment are wine drunk freely at the proper time. Headache, bitterness and disgrace is wine drunk amid anger and strife" (31:27-29 NAB).

[edit] Winemaking in biblical times

Both the climate and land of Palestine, where most of the Bible takes place, were well-suited to growing grapes,^[119] and the wine that the vineyards produced was a valued commodity in ancient times, both for local consumption and for its value in trade.^[120][121] Vineyards were protected from robbers and animals by walls, hedges, and manned watchtowers.^[122]

The harvest time brought much joy and play,^[123] as "[m]en, women and children took to the vineyard, often accompanied by the sound of music and song, from late August to September to bring in the grapes."^[124][125] Some grapes were eaten immediately, while others were turned into raisins. Most of them, however, were put into the winepress where the men and boys trampled them, also often to music.^[124]

The fermentation process started within six to twelve hours after pressing, and the must was usually left in the collection vat for a few days to allow the initial, "tumultuous" stage of fermentation to pass. The wine makers soon transferred it either into large earthenware jars, which were then sealed, or, if the wine were to be transported elsewhere, into wineskins (that is, partially tanned goat-skins, sewn up where the legs and tail had protruded but leaving the opening at the neck).^[119] After six weeks, fermentation was complete, and the wine was filtered into larger containers and either sold for consumption or stored in a cellar or cistern, lasting for three to four years.^[124][126] Even after a year of aging, the vintage was still called "new wine," and more aged wines were preferred.^{[127][128][126]}

Spices and scents were often added to wine in order to hide "defects" that arose due to storage that was often not sufficient to prevent all spoiling.^[129] One might expect about 10% of any given cellar of wine to have been ruined completely, but vinegar was also created intentionally for dipping bread^[130] among other uses.^[131]

The Feast of Booths was a prescribed holiday that immediately followed the harvest and pressing of the grapes.^[132]

[edit] Alcohol in Christian history and tradition

For over 1800 years, the regular use of wine in the celebration of the Eucharist and in daily life was the universal and undisputed practice in Christendom.^[71] During the 1800s and early 1900s as a general sense of prohibitionism arose, many Christians, particularly some Protestants in the United States, came to believe that the Bible prohibited alcohol or that the wisest choice in modern circumstances was for the Christian to willingly abstain from alcohol.

[edit] Before Christ

The Hebraic opinion of wine in the time before Christ was decidedly positive: wine is part of the world God created and is thus "necessarily inherently good,"^[133] though excessive use is soundly condemned. The Jews emphasized joy in the goodness of creation rather than the virtue of temperance, which the Greek philosophers advocated.^[134]

As the Jews returned from the Babylonian exile (starting in 537 BC) and the events of the Old Testament draw to a close, wine was "a common beverage for all classes and ages, including the very young; an important source of nourishment; a prominent part in the festivities of the people; a widely appreciated medicine; an essential provision for any fortress; and an important commodity," and it served as "a necessary element in the life of the Hebrews."^{[135][136][137]} Wine was also used ritualistically to close the Sabbath and to celebrate weddings, and circumcisions, and Passover.^[138]

Although some abstentionists argue that wine in the Bible was almost always cut with water greatly decreasing its potency for inebriation,^[31] there is general agreement that, while Old Testament wine was sometimes mixed with various spices to enhance its flavor and stimulating properties, it was not usually diluted with water,^[139] and as mentioned above, wine mixed with water is used as an Old Testament metaphor for corruption.^[100] Among the Greeks, however, the cutting of wine with water was a common practice used to reduce potency and improve taste.^[56][135] By the time of the writing of 2 Maccabees (first or second century BC), the Greeks had conquered Palestine under Alexander the Great, and the Hellenistic custom had apparently found acceptance with the Jews^{[140][141][142][143]} and was carried into Jewish rituals in New Testament times.^{[144][145][146]}

Under the rule of Rome, which had conquered Palestine under Pompey, the average adult male who was a citizen drank an estimated liter (about a quarter of a gallon, or a modern-day bottle and a half) of wine per day,^[147] though beer was more common in some parts of the world.^[148]

[edit] In the early church

The Apostolic Fathers make very little reference to wine,^[149] but the earliest references from the Church Fathers make it clear that the early church used wine in their celebration of the Eucharist, often mixing it with water according to the prevailing custom.^[150][151] The Didache, an early Christian treatise which is generally accepted to be from the late 1st century, instructs Christians to give a portion of their wine in support of a true prophet or, if they have no prophet resident with them, to the poor.^[152]

Clement of Alexandria (died circa 215) wrote in a chapter about drinking that he admires those who adopt an austere life and abstain from wine, and he suggests the young abstain from wine so as not to inflame their "wild impulses." But he says taking a little wine as medicine or for pleasure after the day's work is acceptable for those who are "moored by reason and time" such that they aren't tempted by drunkenness, and he encourages mixing water in with the wine to inhibit inebriation. He also says wine is an appropriate symbol of Jesus' blood.^[153][154]

Cyprian (died 258) rejects as "contrary to evangelical and apostolical discipline" the practice of some Gnostics, who used water instead of wine in the Eucharist. While still rejecting drunkenness, on the content of the cup he says, "The Holy Spirit also ... makes mention of the Lord’s cup, and says, 'Thy inebriating cup, how excellent it is!' [quoting the Vulgate translation of Ps 23:5] Now the cup which inebriates is assuredly mingled with wine, for water cannot inebriate anybody."^[155]

The virtue of temperance passed from Greek philosophy into Christian ethics and became one of the four cardinal virtues under St. Ambrose^[156] and St. Augustine.^[157][158] Drunkenness, on the other hand, is considered a manifestation of gluttony, one of the seven deadly sins as compiled by Gregory the Great in the 6th century.^[159]

[edit] In the Middle Ages

The decline of the Roman Empire brought with it a significant drop in the production and consumption of wine in western and central Europe, but the Eastern and Western Church (particularly the Byzantines) preserved the practices of viticulture and winemaking.^[160]

The medieval monks were renowned as the finest creators of beer and wine,^[161] were allotted about five liters of beer per day, and were allowed to drink beer (but not wine) during fasts,^[162] and Will Durant says of the customs of England in the day: "a gallon of beer per day was the usual allowance per person, even for nuns."^[163] The Catholic Church continues to celebrate a number of saints related to alcohol — for instance, St. Adrian, patron saint of beer; St. Amand, patron saint of brewers, barkeepers, and wine merchants; St. Martin, the so-called patron saint of wine; St. Vincent, patron saint of vintners.^[161] The Orthodox celebrate St. Tryphon as the guardian saint of vines and vineyard workers.^[164] Because the Catholic Church requires properly fermented wine in the Eucharist^[165] – with a modern exception for alcoholic priests^[166] – wherever Catholicism spread, the missionaries also brought grapevines so they could make wine and celebrate the Mass.^[161]

[edit] In the Reformation

Further information: Alcohol in the early modern period

As the Protestant Reformation began, the Reformers from Luther and Calvin to Zwingli and Knox strongly supported the enjoyment of wine as a biblical blessing,^[167] and indeed Calvin's annual salary in Geneva included seven barrels of wine.^[168] The Lutheran Formula of Concord (1576)^[169] and the Reformed Christian confessions of faith^{[170][171][172][173]} also make explicit mention of and assume the use of wine, as does the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith^[174] and the Methodist Articles of Religion (1784).^[175] In the Dordrecht Confession of Faith (1632), even the radical Anabaptists, who sought to expunge every trace of Catholicism and to rely only on the Bible, also assumed wine was to be used,^[176] and despite their reputation as being killjoys, the English Puritans were temperate partakers of "God's good gifts," including wine and ale.^[177]

[edit] In Colonial America

Further information: Alcohol in Colonial America

As the Pilgrims set out for America, they brought an astounding amount of alcohol with them for the voyage,^[178] and once settled, they served alcohol at "virtually all functions, including ordinations, funerals, and regular Sabbath meals."^[179] M. E. Lender summarizes that "[t]he colonists had assimilated alcohol use, based on Old World patterns, into their community lifestyles" and that "[l]ocal brewing began almost as soon as the colonists were safely ashore."^[180] Increase Mather (died 1723), prominent colonial clergyman and erstwhile president of Harvard, expressed the common view thusly in a sermon against drunkenness: "Drink is in itself a good creature of God, and to be received with thankfulness, but the abuse of drink is from Satan; the wine is from God, but the drunkard is from the Devil."^[181] This Old World attitude is likewise found among the early English Methodists (John and Charles Wesley, George Whitefield, and Adam Clarke) and Baptists (for instance, John Gill and John Bunyan).

[edit] In the 1800s

In the early 1800s, however, things began to change. With the social upheaval that accompanied the American Revolution and the urbanization induced by the Industrial Revolution, drunkenness was on the rise and was blamed for the increasing poverty, unemployment, and crime, and Temperance Societies began forming in order to combat the trend. Initially they espoused moderation and temperance in the use of alcohol, but, fueled in part by the Second Great Awakening, which emphasized personal holiness (and sometimes perfectionism), the message soon changed to the outright elimination of alcohol.^{[182][183][184][185]} Once the Temperance Movement made the leap from temperance to prohibition, alcohol itself became an evil, and so it had to be expunged from Christian practice, especially from the holy rite of the Lord's Supper.^[183][110] Such a position was made practical by Methodist minister Thomas Bramwell Welch's invention of a pasteurization process to stop the fermentation that grape juice naturally undergoes^[186] (see winemaking). Welch's church elders considered substituting juice for wine in the Lord's Supper to be an "unacceptable innovation,"^[187] though it eventually took hold in much of American Protestantism.

Though many Protestants consider Christian tradition to be a valuable guide in matters of faith and practice (compare Paleo-Orthodoxy, for instance), Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy each have a stronger view of Sacred Tradition, and consequently they were largely unaffected by the movements to eliminate alcohol from church life. Similarly, while the Lutheran and Anglican churches felt some pressure, they did not alter in their moderationist position. Even the English denominational Temperance Societies refused to make abstention a requirement for membership, and their position remained moderationist in character.^[188] The changes in practice thus were not common to the church around the world but rather were primarily a phenomenon in American Protestantism, particularly those without a strong international history or connections. These changes have persisted with some waning of support down to our own day.^[186][189]

[edit] Current views

Today, the views on alcohol in Christendom can be divided into moderationism, abstentionism, and prohibitionism. Abstentionists and prohibitionists are sometimes lumped together as "teetotalers" (compare list of teetotalers) and share some similar arguments for their positions, but the distinction between them is that the latter abstain from alcohol as a matter of law (that is, they believe God requires abstinence in all ordinary circumstances), while the former abstain as a matter of prudence (that is, they believe total abstinence is the wisest and most loving way to live in the present circumstances).^[3]

[edit] Moderationism

The moderationist position is accepted almost universally outside of Protestant Christianity^[190][191] and within Protestantism, it is accepted by most Lutherans,^[192][193] Anglicans,^[10] and Reformed churches.^{[194][195][196][197][198]} Moderationism is also accepted by Jehovah's Witnesses.^[199]

Moderationism argues that, according to the biblical and traditional witness, (1) alcohol is a good gift of God that is rightly used for making the heart merry, and (2) while its dangers are real, it may be used wisely and moderately rather than being shunned or prohibited because of potential abuse.^{[54][71][200][183]} In short, moderationism holds that temperance (that is, moderation or self-control) in all of one's behavior, not abstinence, is the biblical norm.^[201]

On the first point, moderationists reflect the Hebrew mindset that all creation is good.^[202] Going further, Calvin says that "it is lawful to use wine not only in cases of necessity, but also thereby to make us merry,"^[203] and in his Genevan Catechism, he answers that wine is appropriate in the Lord's Supper because "by wine the hearts of men are gladdened, their strength recruited, and the whole man strengthened, so by the blood of our Lord the same benefits are received by our souls."^[204]

On the second point, Martin Luther employs a reductio ad absurdum to counter the idea that abuse should be met with disuse: "[W]e must not ... reject [or] condemn anything because it is abused.... [W]ine and women bring many a man to misery and make a fool of him (Ecclus. 19:2; 31:30); so [we would need to] kill all the women and pour out all the wine."^[205] In dealing with drunkenness at the love feast in Corinth,^[73] St. Paul does not require total abstinence from drink but love for one another that would express itself in moderate, selfless behavior.^[206][207] However, moderationists approve of voluntary abstinence in a number of cases, such as for a person one who finds it too difficult to drink in moderation and for the benefit of the "weaker brother," who would err because of a stronger Christian exercising his or her liberty to drink.^[208]

While all moderationists approve of using (fermented) wine in the Eucharist in principle (Catholics, Orthodox, and some Lutherans require it),^[165][166] because of prohibitionist heritage and a sensitivity to those who wish to abstain from alcohol, many offer either grape juice or both wine and juice at their celebrations of the Lord's Supper.^{[192][195][196][209]} Some Christians mix some water with the wine following ancient tradition, and some attach a mystical significance to this practice.^[210][211]

[edit] Comparison

In addition to lexical and historical differences,^[54][212] moderationism holds that prohibitionism errs by confusing the Christian virtues of temperance and moderation with abstinence and prohibition and by locating the evil in the object that is abused rather in the heart and deeds of the abuser.^[183][9] Moreover, moderationists suggest that the prohibitionist and abstentionist positions denigrate God's creation and his good gifts and deny that it is not what goes into a man that makes him evil but what comes out (that is, what he says and does).^[81][213] And so, moderationists hold that in banishing wine from communion and dinner tables, prohibitionists and abstentionists go against the witness of the Bible and the church throughout the ages and implicitly adopt a Pharisaical moralism that is at odds with the what moderationists consider the right approach to biblical ethics and the doctrines of sin and sanctification.^{[214][215][200]}

[edit] Abstentionism

The abstentionist position is held by many Baptists,^[216] Pentecostals,^[217] Methodists,^[218] and other evangelical and Protestant groups including the Salvation Army.^[219] Prominent proponents of abstentionism include Billy Graham,^[220] John F. MacArthur,^[46] R. Albert Mohler, Jr.,^[221] and John Piper.^[222]

Abstentionists believe that although alcohol consumption is not inherently sinful or necessarily avoided in all circumstances, it is generally not the wisest or most prudent choice. While most abstentionists don't require abstinence from alcohol for membership in their churches, they do often require it for leadership positions.^{[38][222][223]}

Some reasons commonly given for voluntary abstention are:

1. The Bible warns that alcohol can hinder moral discretion. As discussed above, Pr 31:4-5 warns kings and rulers that they might "forget what is decreed, and pervert the rights of all the afflicted." Some abstentionists speak of alcohol as "corrupt[ing]" the body and as a substance that can "impair my judgment and further distract me from God’s will for my life."^[224]
2. Christians must be sensitive to the "weaker brother," that is, the Christian who (incorrectly, in the abstentionist's view) believes imbibing to be a sin. On this point MacArthur says, "[T]he primary reason I don't do a lot of things I could do, including drinking wine or any alcoholic beverage, [is] because I know some believers would be offended by it.... [M]any Christians will drink their beer and wine and flaunt their liberty no matter what anyone thinks. Consequently, there is a rift in the fellowship."^[225]
3. Christians should make a public statement against drunkenness because of the negative consequences it can have on individuals, families, and society as a whole. Some abstentionists believe that their witness as persons of moral character is also enhanced by this choice.^[223][224]

Additionally, abstentionists argue that while drinking may have been more acceptable in ancient times (for instance, using wine to purify polluted drinking water),^[38][226] modern circumstances have changed the nature of Christian's responsibility in this area. First, some abstentionists argue that wine in Biblical times was weaker and diluted with water such that drunkenness was less common,^{[227][228][229]} though few non-abstentionists accept this as a matter of historical fact (see above), and the invention of more efficient distillation techniques has led to even more potent and cheaper alcohol, which in turn has lessened the economic barrier to drinking to excess.^[230][228] Second, some of the consequences of drunkenness have been amplified by changing circumstances such as the availability of automobiles and the hazards of driving under the influence.

[edit] Comparison

On historical and lexical grounds, many abstentionists reject the argument of prohibitionists that wine in the Bible was not alcoholic and that imbibing is nearly always a sin.^[38][35] Piper summarizes the abstentionist position on this point:

The consumption of food and drink is in itself no basis for judging a person's standing with God.... [The Apostle Paul's] approach to these abuses [of food and drink] was never to forbid food or drink. It was always to forbid what destroyed God's temple and injured faith. He taught the principle of love, but did not determine its application with regulations in matters of food and drink.^[231]

Abstentionists also reject the position of moderationists that in many circumstances Christians should feel free to drink for pleasure because abstentionists see alcohol as inherently too dangerous and not "a necessity for life or good living,"^[223][31] with some even going so far as to say, "Moderation is the cause of the liquor problem."^[223]

[edit] Prohibitionism

The prohibitionist position has experienced a general reduction of support since the days of Prohibitionism as a movement, with many of its advocates becoming abstentionists instead.

Prohibitionist individuals such as Stephen Reynolds^{[232][233][234]} and Jack Van Impe^[235] and denominations such as the Seventh-day Adventists^[236][237] hold that the Bible forbids partaking of alcohol altogether, with some arguing that even the alleged medicinal use of wine in 1 Timothy 5:23 is a reference unfermented grape juice.^[30] They argue that the words for alcoholic beverages in the Bible can also refer to non-alcoholic versions such as unfermented grape juice, and for this reason the context must determine which meaning is required.^[234] In passages where the beverages are viewed negatively, prohibitionists understand them to mean the alcoholic drinks, and where they are viewed positively, they understand them to mean non-alcoholic drinks.^[238] Prohibitionists also accuse most Bible translators of exhibiting a bias in favor of alcohol that obscures the meaning of the original texts.^[30][234]

The Word of Wisdom, which is a section in Doctrine and Covenants, part of the Mormon canon, also forbids the use of alcohol along with tobacco, coffee, and tea.^[239]

[edit] References