Eucharist

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Part of the series on Communion

also known as "The Eucharist" or "The Lord's Supper"

Theology Transubstantiation Consecration Words of Institution Real Presence Impanation Memorialism Consubstantiation Sacramental Union Transignification

Theologies contrasted Eucharist (Catholic Church) Anglican Eucharistic theology

Important theologians Paul ·Aquinas Augustine · Calvin Chrysostom · Cranmer Luther · Zwingli

Related Articles Christianity Christianity and alcohol Catholic Historic Roots Closed and Open Table Divine Liturgy Eucharistic adoration Eucharistic discipline First Communion Infant Communion Mass · Sacrament Sanctification

The Eucharist (see below for other names) is the rite that Christians perform in fulfillment of the instruction (reported in 1 Corinthians 11:24-25) that Jesus gave to do in his memory. It is a sacramental or memorial reenactment of what he did at his Last Supper in giving his disciples bread, saying "This is my body," and the wine, saying "This is my blood."

Christians generally recognize a special presence of Christ in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. The word "Eucharist" is also applied to the bread and the cup consecrated in the course of the rite.

The word "Eucharist" comes from the Greek noun εὐχαριστία (transliterated, "Eucharistia"), meaning thanksgiving.^[1] This noun or the corresponding verb εὐχαριστῶ (to give thanks) is found in 55 verses of the New Testament. (Εὐχαριστέω, the uncontracted form, given in some aids for students, is not used in the New Testament.) Four of these verses^[2] recount that Jesus "gave thanks" before presenting to his followers the bread and the cup that he declared to be his body and his blood. The Gospel of John affirms this.^[3]

Most Christians classify the Eucharist as a sacrament. Some Protestants view it as an ordinance in which the ceremony is seen not as a specific channel of divine grace but as an expression of faith and of obedience to Christ.

Contents 1 Names for the Eucharist 2 Eucharist in the Bible 3 Christian theology 3.1 Roman Catholic Church 3.2 Eastern Christianity: true sacrifice and objective presence but pious silence on the particulars 3.3 Anglicans/Episcopalians: Real Presence with opinion 3.4 Lutherans—the sacramental union: "in, with, and under the forms" 3.5 Methodism—Real Presence as "Holy Mystery" 3.6 Calvinist Reformed: spiritual feeding, "pneumatic" presence 3.7 Latter Day Saint movement 3.8 Zwinglian Reformed: no Real Presence 3.9 Summary of views 4 Ritual and liturgy 4.1 The Agape feast 4.2 Eastern Christianity 4.3 Roman Catholicism 4.4 Anglican 4.5 Lutheran 4.6 Reformed/Presbyterian 4.7 Baptist 4.7.1 Unleavened bread versus leavened bread 4.7.2 Grape juice versus wine 4.8 Latter Day Saint movement 4.9 Jehovah's Witnesses 4.10 Open and closed communion 5 Theories about Greco-Roman pre-Christian connection 6 See also 7 References 8 Books 9 External links 9.1 Liturgical texts & services 9.2 History, theology, practice, etc.

[edit] Names for the Eucharist

• Eucharist (from Greek Εὐχαριστία Eucharistia, "thanksgiving") is the term with the earliest established historical use. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, who was martyred in Rome in about 110, used the term "Eucharist," referring to both the rite and the consecrated elements, three times in his Letter to the Smyrnaeans [1] and once in his Letter to the Philadelphians [2]. Justin Martyr, writing around 150, gave a detailed description of the rite, and stated that "Eucharist" was the name that Christians used: "This food is called among us the Eucharist..." (Apology, 66 [3]). Today the term "Eucharist" is used by Catholics, the Eastern Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox, Anglicans, United Methodists, Lutherans. Most other Protestant traditions use this term rarely, but few reject it entirely.

• Communion (from Latin communio, "sharing in common") is a term used by Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Anglicans, and many Protestants, including Lutherans; Holy Communion is also prevalent. Catholics and Orthodox apply this term not to the Eucharistic rite as a whole, but only to the partaking of the consecrated bread and the cup, and to these consecrated elements themselves. In their understanding, it is possible to participate in the celebration of the Eucharistic rite without necessarily "receiving Holy Communion" (partaking of the consecrated elements).^[4] On the contrary, groups that originated in the Protestant Reformation usually apply this term to the whole rite. Many, especially Anglicans, prefer the fuller term "Holy Communion" rather than just "Communion." The meaning of the term Communion here is multivocal in that it also refers to the relationship of Christians, as persons or as a Church, with God and with other Christians (see Communion (Christian)), and refers, as well, to the relationship between the Three Divine Persons within the Trinity, a relationship known as perichoresis and which is considered the archetype of the other forms of communion.

• The Lord's Supper and the Breaking of Bread are terms that the New Testament (1 Corinthians 11:20; Acts 2:42, 20:7) applies to celebration of the Eucharist. The first of these terms tends to be preferred by "minimalist" traditions, especially those strongly influenced by Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli and the Restoration Movement. The Lord's Supper is also a common term among Lutherans, as is The Sacrament of the Altar. Other Churches and denominations also use these terms, but generally not as their basic, routine term. The use is predominant among Baptist groups, who generally avoid the use of the term Communion due to its use by the Roman Catholic Church. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the term The Sacrament is used.

• Certain terms are limited to the Orthodox Christian and Catholic traditions, and are typically applied to the rite as a whole. The Divine Liturgy is used by Orthodox and the Eastern Catholic Churches, who also, especially for the consecrated elements, use the Divine Mysteries. Roman Catholics use many other terms, including the Mass, Holy Mass, the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord, the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass, and the Holy Mysteries.^[5] The Blessed Sacrament and the Blessed Sacrament of the Altar are also common terms for the consecrated elements, especially when reserved in the Church tabernacle. "Mass" is also used by Anglo-Catholics and the Church of Sweden.

Other phrases also are used to describe Eucharist such as "Lord's Supper" (Coena Domini), "Table of the Lord" (Mensa Domini), the "Lord's Body" (Corpus Domini), and the "Holy of Holies" (Sanctissimum), and "the Breaking of the Bread." The following terms are also related, directly or indirectly, to the celebration of the Eucharist: "Agape" (Love-Feast), "Eulogia" (Blessing), and "Synaxis" (Assembly).

[edit] Eucharist in the Bible

The three synoptic Gospels (Matthew [4], Mark [5], and Luke [6]) as well as Saint Paul's first Letter to the Corinthians [7] contain versions of the Words of Institution spoken by Jesus at the Last Supper: "Take, eat, this is my body ... Take, drink, this is my blood ... Do this in remembrance of me." All subsequent celebration of the Eucharist is based on this injunction. John 6 is also interpreted in connection with the Eucharist: " For My flesh is food indeed, and My blood is drink indeed. He who eats My flesh and drinks My blood abides in Me, and I in him." (John 6:55-56).

One writer^[6] has argued that the Book of Revelation used the Eucharistic liturgy of the early Church (with its portrayal of doctrines of the incarnation, paschal sacrifice, and second coming) to describe the heavenly liturgy.

See also: Historical roots of Catholic Eucharistic theology

[edit] Christian theology

The Eucharist has always been at the center of Christian worship, though theological interpretations vary. In general, the Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox traditions see the Eucharist as the fulfillment of God's plan for the salvation of humanity from sin (the "Divine Economy"), a commemoration and making present of Jesus' Crucifixion on Calvary and his Resurrection, the means for Christians to unite with God and with each other, and the giving of thanks for all these things. Differences in Eucharistic theology tend to be related to differences in understanding of these areas.

Efforts at mutual understanding of the range of theologies led in the 1980s to the consultations on Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry (BEM) through the World Council of Churches, which included the Roman Catholic Church.

There have been disputes also about differences of practice less directly connected with the essential theology of the Eucharist. When the East-West Schism had already begun, Eastern Orthodox theologians reproached the Latin Rite Church for using unleavened bread (see Azymite), and continue to demand that only leavened bread be used.[8]PDF (175 KiB) Additionally, many Protestant traditions have rejected or eschewed the use of alcoholic wine in their celebrations, and instead offer red grape juice (see Christianity and alcohol).

[edit] Roman Catholic Church

Main article: Eucharist (Catholic Church)

In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, the Eucharist is one of the seven sacraments, but is also considered the "the source and summit of the Christian life" (Lumen Gentium 11) and that "The other sacraments...are bound up with the Eucharist and are orientated toward it." (Catechism of the Catholic Church 1324). The institution of the Eucharist is one of the Luminous Mysteries of the Rosary. The Eucharist is a commemoration, or, in Greek, anamnesis [9] of the Passion, Death, and Resurrection of Christ (called the Paschal Mystery), understood in the fullest sense given to it in Biblical tradition. In other words, it is a memorial which does not just bring to mind the event celebrated, but also makes it truly present. The Eucharist is therefore understood to be not simply a representation of Christ's presence, or a remembrance of his Passion and Death, but an actual participation in the Sacrifice of Christ, the manifestation, in the present, of an event that occurred once for all in time. The Eucharist makes present that one sacrifice, not a different sacrifice. The priest and victim of the sacrifice are one and the same (Christ); the only difference is in the manner in which it is offered—the Church teaches that the Mass is the sacrifice at Calvary made present in an unbloody manner.

The only minister of the Eucharist, that is, one authorized to celebrate the rite and consecrate the Eucharist, is a validly ordained priest (either bishop or presbyter) acting in the person of Christ (in persona Christi). In other words the priest celebrant represents Christ, who is the Head of the Church, and acts before God the Father in the name of the Church. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is essential for validity.

According to the Roman Catholic Church, when the bread and wine are consecrated in the Eucharist, they cease to be bread and wine, and become instead the body and blood of Christ. The empirical appearances are not changed, but the reality is. The consecration of the bread (known as the host) and wine represents the separation of Jesus' body from his blood at Calvary. However, since he has risen, the Church teaches that his body and blood can no longer be truly separated. Where one is, the other must be. Therefore, although the priest (or minister) says, "The body of Christ," when administering the host, and, "The blood of Christ," when presenting the chalice, the communicant who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire.

The mysterious change of the reality of the bread and wine used in the Eucharist, a change to which patristic writers had given other equivalent names, began to be called "transubstantiation" in the Eleventh Century. It seems that the first text in which the term appears is of Gilbert of Savardin, Archbishop of Tours, in a sermon from 1079 (PL CLXXI 776). The theological explanation based on the Aristotles' hylemorphic theory of reality didn´t appear until the Thirteenth Century, with Alexander of Hales (died 1245). The term first appeared in a papal document in the letter "Cum Marthae circa" to a certain John, Archbishop of Lyons, 29 November 1202,^[7] then in the Fourth Lateran Council (1215)^[8]and afterward in the book "Iam dudum" sent to the Armenians in the year 1341.^[9]

The definition of the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which concerns what is changed, not how the change occurs, is given in the following words of the thirteenth session of the Council of Trent, quoted in paragraph 1376 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church: "Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again, that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ our Lord and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation."

Though this change is ultimately a mystery that can never be fully explained or understood, in the judgment of the Catholic Church, the term "transubstantiation," with its accompanying unambiguous distinction between "substance" or underlying reality, and "accidents" or humanly perceptible appearances, still best safeguards against the opposite extremes of a cannibalistic interpretation (the accidents remain real, not an illusion) or of a merely symbolic interpretation (the substance is changed from that of bread and wine to that of the body and blood of Christ) of the Eucharist.

Holy Communion may be given to Catholics who wish to receive either during Mass (the Eucharist) or outside of Mass; this is called the administration of Holy Communion. When it is given during Mass, it may be given under one kind (usually the consecrated bread, referred to as the host), or under both kinds (both the host and the consecrated wine, referred to by Catholics as the Precious Blood). Regular use of Communion under both kinds requires the permission of the bishop, but bishops in some countries have given blanket permission to administer Holy Communion in this way. The ordinary ministers of Holy Communion are Bishops, Priests and Deacons, the latter traditionally ministering the chalice. Members of the laity may also be commissioned as extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion when it is deemed to be necessary, and the practice has been widespread for many years.

Since Holy Communion may be received under one kind (the Sacred Host alone), or under both kinds (both the Sacred Host and the Precious Blood), a coeliac may freely receive Christ in Communion under the form of wine alone, and an alcoholic under the form of bread alone.

"Holy Communion has a fuller form as a sign when it is distributed under both kinds. For in this form the sign of the Eucharistic banquet is more clearly evident and clear expression is given to the divine will by which the new and eternal Covenant is ratified in the Blood of the Lord, as also the relationship between the Eucharistic banquet and the eschatological banquet in the Father's Kingdom…. (However,) Christ, whole and entire, and the true Sacrament, is received even under only one species, and consequently that as far as the effects are concerned, those who receive under only one species are not deprived of any of the grace that is necessary for salvation" (General Instruction of the Roman MissalPDF (218 KiB), 281-282).

The hosts are kept in a tabernacle after the celebration of the Mass, so that they can be brought to the sick or dying during the week, and also that Jesus, present in the Eucharist, may be worshipped and adored. Occasionally, the Eucharist is exposed in a monstrance, so that it may be the focus of prayer and adoration.

[edit] Eastern Christianity: true sacrifice and objective presence but pious silence on the particulars

Main article: Divine Liturgy

Like Roman Catholicism, the Eastern Orthodox and the Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches and the Assyrian Church of the East believe that Christ is really, fully, uniquely present in the Eucharistic elements, and that, in the Divine Liturgy, the one sacrifice of Christ is made present;^[10] and that the exact means by which the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ, through the work of the Holy Spirit, is a mystery. They are not particularly interested in the precise moment the change occurs, although this "change" or "fulfillment" of the bread and wine is usually identified with the Epiklesis. As in the Roman Catholic Church, any of the consecrated elements, or "holy gifts," that remain at the end of the Divine Liturgy are normally consumed by a priest or deacon.

The holy gifts reserved for the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts or communion of the sick are specially consecrated as needed, especially on Holy Thursday, and are not simply leftovers from the Divine Liturgy. They are kept in an elaborately decorated tabernacle, which is a container placed on the altar and is often in the shape of a church. Eucharistic adoration is unknown outside the Liturgy itself, except among those Orthodox Christians who worship according to a Western Rite.

[edit] Anglicans/Episcopalians: Real Presence with opinion

Main article: Anglican Eucharistic theology

The historical position of the Anglican Communion is found in the Thirty-Nine Articles of 1571, which state "the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ"; and likewise that "the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ" (Articles of Religion, Article XXVIII: Of the Lord's Supper). The fact that the terms "Bread" and "Wine" and the corresponding words "Body" and "Blood" are all capitalized may reflect the wide range of theological beliefs regarding the Eucharist among Anglicans. However, the Articles also state that adoration, or worship per se, of the consecrated elements was not commanded by Christ and that those who receive unworthily do not actually receive Christ but rather their own condemnation.

Anglicans generally and officially believe in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, but the specifics of that belief range from transubstantiation, sometimes with Eucharistic adoration (mainly Anglo-Catholics), to something akin to a belief in a "pneumatic" presence, which may or may not be tied to the Eucharistic elements themselves (almost always "Low Church" or Evangelical Anglicans). The normal range of Anglican belief ranges from Objective Reality to Pious Silence, depending on the individual Anglican's theology. There are also small minorities on the one hand which affirm transubstantiation, or on the other hand, reject the doctrine of the Real Presence altogether. The classic Anglican aphorism with regard to this debate is found in a poem by John Donne (sometimes attributed to Elizabeth I):

He was the Word that spake it;

He took the bread and brake it;

and what that Word did make it;

I do believe and take it.^[11]

Anglican belief in the Eucharistic Sacrifice ("Sacrifice of the Mass") is set forth in the response Saepius officio of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to Pope Leo XIII's Papal Encyclical Apostolicae curae. Anglicans and Roman Catholics declared that they had "substantial agreement on the doctrine of the Eucharist" in the Windsor Statement on Eucharistic Doctrine from the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation and the Elucidation of the ARCIC Windsor Statement.

[edit] Lutherans—the sacramental union: "in, with, and under the forms"

In the Lutheran Book of Concord, Apology XXIV.1 it is asserted that among Lutherans the eucharist is celebrated weekly: "In our churches Mass is celebrated every Sunday and on other festivals, when the sacrament is offered to those who wish for it after they have been examined and absolved." This was their response to those who accused them of abolishing the eucharist. Strict adherence to this assertion varies in present day Lutheranism.

Lutherans believe that the Body and Blood of Christ are "truly and substantially present in, with and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants eat and drink both the elements and the true Body and Blood of Christ Himself (cf. Augsburg Confession, Article 10) in the Sacrament of Holy Communion. The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as "the sacramental union." This theology was first developed in the Wittenberg Concord. It has been called "consubstantiation" by some, but this term is rejected by Lutheran Churches and theologians as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name.

For Lutherans, there is no sacrament unless the elements are used according to Christ's institution (consecration, distribution, and reception). This was first formulated in the Wittenberg Concord of 1536 in the formula: Nihil habet rationem sacramenti extra usum a Christo institutum ("Nothing has the character of a sacrament apart from the use instituted by Christ"). As a consequence of their belief in this principle, some Lutherans have opposed in the Christian Church the reservation of the consecrated elements, private masses, the practice of Corpus Christi, and the belief that the presence of Christ's body and blood continue in the reliquæ (what remains of the consecrated elements after all have communed in the worship service). This interpretation is not universal among Lutherans. The consecrated elements are treated with respect, and in some areas are reserved as in Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Anglican practice, but Eucharistic adoration is not typically practiced. To remove any scruple of doubt or superstition the reliquæ traditionally are either consumed or poured into the earth, except that a small amount may be kept for delivery to those too ill or infirm to attend the service. In this case, the consecrated elements are to be delivered quickly, preserving the connection between the communion experienced by the ill person, and the communion of the rest of the congregation.

Lutherans use the terms "in, with and under the forms of [consecrated] bread and wine" and "sacramental union" to distinguish their understanding of the Lord's Supper from those of the Reformed and other traditions. More liberal Lutheran Churches tend to practice open communion, inviting all who are baptized to participate. Conservative Lutheran Churches such as the Confessional Lutherans are more likely to practice closed communion (or "close communion"), restricting participation to those, who are more or less in doctrinal agreement with them. This might involve the formal declaration of "altar and pulpit fellowship," another term for Eucharistic sharing coupled with the acceptance of the ministrations of one another's clergy.

[edit] Methodism—Real Presence as "Holy Mystery"

There is no definitive Methodist statement on how the real presence of Jesus Christ is experienced in Holy Communion. Nevertheless, the followers of John Wesley, himself an Anglican clergyman, have typically affirmed that the sacrament of Holy Communion is an instrumental Means of Grace through which the real presence of Christ is communicated to the believer, but have otherwise allowed the details to remain a mystery. In particular, Methodists reject the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation (see "Article XVIII" of the Articles of Religion, Means of Grace). In 2004, the United Methodist Church more clearly defined its view of the sacrament and its belief in the Real Presence in an official document entitled This Holy Mystery. Of particular note here is the Church's unequivocal recognition of the anamnesis as more than just a memorial but, rather, a re-presentation of Christ Jesus:

Holy Communion is remembrance, commemoration, and memorial, but this remembrance is much more than simply intellectual recalling. "Do this in remembrance of me" (Luke 22:19; 1 Corinthians 11:24-25) is anamnesis (the biblical Greek word). This dynamic action becomes re-presentation of past gracious acts of God in the present, so powerfully as to make them truly present now. Christ is risen and is alive here and now, not just remembered for what was done in the past.

This affirmation of Real Presence—of what is sometimes called anamnetical real presence—can be seen clearly illustrated in the language of the United Methodist Eucharistic Liturgy (for example: Word and Table 1) where, in the epecletical portion of the Great Thanksgiving, the celebrating minister prays over the elements:

Pour out your Holy Spirit on us gathered here, and on these gifts of bread and wine. Make them be for us the body and blood of Christ, that we may be for the world the body of Christ, redeemed by his blood.

For most United Methodists—and, indeed, for much of Methodism as a whole—this reflects the furthest extent to which they are willing to go in defining Real Presence. They will assert that Jesus is really present, and that the means of this presence is a "Holy Mystery"; the celebrating minister will pray for the Holy Spirit to make the elements "be the body and blood of Christ," and the congregation will even sing, as in the third stanza of Charles Wesley's hymn Come Sinners to the Gospel Feast:

Come and partake the gospel feast,

Be saved from sin, in Jesus rest;

O taste the goodness of our God,

and eat his flesh and drink his blood.[10]

However, beyond this degree of specificity most Methodists will not go. For them, the affirmation of Real Presence, as in the above references, is sufficient for them to know and partake of the sacrament in a worthy manner. Most Methodist Churches use grape juice for "the Cup."

[edit] Calvinist Reformed: spiritual feeding, "pneumatic" presence

Many Reformed Christians, particularly those who follow John Calvin, hold that Christ's body and blood do not come down to inhabit the elements, but that "the Spirit truly unites things separated in space" (Calvin).

Following a phrase of Augustine, the Calvinist view is that "no one bears away from this Sacrament more than is gathered with the vessel of faith." "The flesh and blood of Christ are no less truly given to the unworthy than to God's elect believers," Calvin said; but those who partake by faith receive benefit from Christ, and the unbelieving are condemned by partaking. By faith (not a mere mental apprehension), and in the Holy Spirit, the partaker beholds God incarnate, and in the same sense touches him with hands, so that by eating and drinking of bread and wine Christ's actual presence penetrates to the heart of the believer more nearly than food swallowed with the mouth can enter in.

Calvin specifically rejected adoration of the Eucharistic bread and wine as "idolatry," however. Leftover elements may be disposed of without ceremony (or reused in later services); they are unchanged, and as such the meal directs attention toward Christ's bodily resurrection and return.

[edit] Latter Day Saint movement

Main article: Sacrament (Latter Day Saints)

To Latter Day Saints (also known as Mormons), the Eucharist (called the Sacrament) is viewed as a renewal of the covenant made at baptism. As such, it is a closed communion for baptized members in good standing. According to the Sacrament prayers, a person eats and drinks in remembrance of the body and blood of Jesus, and promises always to remember him and keep his commandments. In return the prayer promises that the participant will always have the Spirit to be with them.

The Sacrament is considered to be a weekly renewal of a member's commitment to follow Jesus Christ, and a plea for forgiveness of sins.

Like most Restorationist sects of Christianity, Latter Day Saints do not believe in any kind of literal presence. They view the bread and wine as symbolic of the body and blood of Christ. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints choose to use water instead of wine following the Doctrine and Covenants where a believed revelation from the Lord says "it mattereth not what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink when ye partake of the sacrament, if it so be that ye do it with an eye single to my glory—remembering unto the Father my body which was laid down for you, and my blood which was shed for the remission of your sins." (see D&C 27:2)

[edit] Zwinglian Reformed: no Real Presence

Main article: Memorialism

Some Protestant groups see Communion (also called the Lord's Supper or the Lord's Table) as a symbolic meal, a memorial of the Last Supper and the Passion in which nothing miraculous occurs. This view is known as the Zwinglian view, after Huldrych Zwingli, a Church leader in Zurich, Switzerland during the Reformation. It is commonly associated with Baptists and the Disciples of Christ. As with the Reformed view, elements left over from the service may be discarded without any formal ceremony, or if feasible may be retained for use in future services.

Some of the Reformed hold that Calvin actually held this view, and not the Spiritual feeding idea more commonly attributed to him; or that the two views are really the same.

The successor of Zwingli in Zurich, Heinrich Bullinger, came to an agreement theologically with John Calvin. The Consensus Tigurinus lays out an explanation of the doctrine of the Sacraments in general, and specifically, that of Holy Communion, as the view embraced by John Calvin and leaders of the Church of Zurich who followed Zwingli. It demonstrates that at least the successors of Zwingli held to the real spiritual presence view most commonly attributed to Calvin and Reformed Protestantism.

[edit] Summary of views

Because Jesus Christ is a person, theologies regarding the Eucharist involve consideration of the way in which the communicant's personal relationship with God is fed through this mystical meal. However, debates over Eucharistic theology in the West have centered not on the personal aspects of Christ's presence but on the metaphysical. The opposing views are summarized below.

• Transubstantiation – the substance (fundamental reality) of the bread and wine is transformed in a way beyond human comprehension into that of the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ, but the accidents (physical traits, including chemical properties) of the bread and wine remain; this view is that taught by the Roman Catholic Church and by the Eastern Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem, and is held by many Anglicans, especially in Anglo-Catholic circles.
• "In, with and under the forms"—the body and blood of Jesus Christ are substantially present in, with and under the substance of the bread and wine, which remain. This is the view held by most Lutherans, and some Anglicans. Lutherans and non-Lutherans refer to this view as 'consubstantiation'. Although, for some, this term is difficult to understand, it remains the confessed understanding of the Lutheran faith.
• Objective reality, but pious silence about technicalities—the view of all the ancient Churches of the East, including the Eastern Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox, the Eastern Catholic Churches) and the Assyrian Church of the East as well as perhaps most Anglicans. These, while agreeing with the Roman Catholic belief that the sacrament is not merely bread and wine but truly the body and blood of Christ, and having historically employed the "substance" and "accidents" terminology to explain what is changed in the transformation,^[12] usually avoid this terminology, lest they seem to scrutize the technicalities of the manner in which the transformation occurs.
• Real Spiritual presence also called "pneumatic presence"—not only the spirit, but also the true body and blood of Jesus Christ (hence "real") are received by the sovereign, mysterious, and miraculous power of the Holy Spirit (hence "spiritual"), but only by those partakers who have faith. This view approaches the "pious silence" view in its unwillingness to specify how the Holy Spirit makes Christ present, but positively excludes not just symbolism but also trans- and con-substantiation. It is also known as the "mystical presence" view, and is held by most Reformed Christians, such as Presbyterians, as well as some Methodists and some Anglicans, particularly Low Church Reformed Anglicans. See Westminster Confession of Faith, ch. 29. This understanding is often called "receptionism." Some argue that this view can be seen as being suggested—though not by any means clearly—by the "invocation" of the Anglican Rite as found in the American Book of Common Prayer, 1928 and earlier and in Rite I of the American BCP of 1979 as well as in other Anglican formularies:

And we most humbly beseech thee, O merciful Father, to hear us, and of thy almighty goodness, vouchsafe to bless and sanctify, with thy Word and Holy Spirit, these thy gifts and creatures of bread and wine; that we, receiving them according to thy Son our Savior Jesus Christ's holy institution, in remembrance of his death and passion, may be partakers of his most blessed body and blood.

• Symbolism—the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, and in partaking of the elements the believer commemorates the sacrificial death of Christ. This view is also known as "memorialism" and Zwinglianism after Ulrich Zwingli and is held by several Protestant and Latter-day Saint denominations, including most Baptists.
• Suspension—the partaking of the bread and wine was not intended to be a perpetual ordinance, or was not to be taken as a religious rite or ceremony (also known as adeipnonism, meaning "no supper" or "no meal"). This is the view of Quakers and the Salvation Army, as well as the hyperdispensationalist positions of E. W. Bullinger, Cornelius R. Stam, and others.

[edit] Ritual and liturgy

[edit] The Agape feast

The Eucharistic celebrations of the early Christians were embedded in, or simply took the form of, a meal. While centered on the ritual of the bread and wine, it also included various other actions, including sometimes elements of the Passover seder and of Mediterranean banquets, funerary and otherwise. These were often called Agape Feasts, although terminology varied in the first few centuries along with other aspects of practice. Agape is one of the Greek words for love, specifically meaning selfless love, or God's love for mankind.

This ritual was apparently a full meal, with each participant bringing a contribution to the meal according to their means. Perhaps predictably enough, it could at times deteriorate into merely an occasion for eating and drinking, or for ostentatious displays by the wealthier members of the community. This was criticized by St. Paul in the New Testament (cf. 1 Cor 11:20-22). The Eucharist proper was detached from the Agape meal between the first and third centuries for such reasons, and the Agape was definitively dropped by the Church between the 6th and 8th centuries. There have been various survivals and revivals, however. Monastic communities continued to share communal meals in a spirit similar to those of the ancient Church. In the 18th century, Pietist Christians began to hold Love Feasts that looked back to the ancient Agape. Many Christians today after celebrating the Eucharist or another liturgy, now routinely participate in a sharing of light refreshments and conversation in an informal ritual that is functionally an Agape. This post-Eucharistic gathering is often called "fellowship hour" or "coffee hour" and is regarded by many clergy as a particularly opportune time for engaging adults in Christian education.

Today some contemporary Christians participate in Agape meals on rare occasions, to experience this historical form of the Eucharist. Others, particularly among the House Church movement, practice the love feast weekly as the observation of the Lord's Supper—a full meal provided by and shared among the members. The bread and wine are taken as part of the meal, either at the end or the meal may be opened with the bread and ended with the wine.

[edit] Eastern Christianity

Main article: Divine Liturgy

Among Eastern Christians, the Eucharistic service is called the Divine Liturgy. It comprises two main divisions: the first is the Liturgy of the Catechumens which consists of introductory litanies, antiphons and scripture readings, culminating in a reading from one of the Gospels and often, a sermon; the second is the Liturgy of the Faithful in which the Eucharist is offered, consecrated, and received as Holy Communion. Within the latter, the actual Eucharistic prayer is called the anaphora, literally: "offering" or "carrying up" (ἀνα- + φέρω). In the Byzantine Rite, two different anaphoras are currently used: one is attributed to St. John Chrysostom, and the other to St. Basil the Great. Among the Oriental Orthodox, a variety of anaphoras are used, but all are similar in structure to those of the Byzantine Rite. In the Byzantine Rite, the Anaphora of St. John Chrysostom is used most days of the year; St. Basil's is offered on the Sundays of Great Lent, the eves of Christmas and Theophany, Holy Thursday, Holy Saturday, and upon his feast day (January 1). At the conclusion of the Anaphora the bread and wine are held to be the Body and Blood of Christ.

Conventionally this change in the elements is understood to occur at the Epiklesis (Greek: "invocation") by which the Holy Spirit is invoked and the consecration of the bread and wine as the Body and Blood of Christ is specifically requested, but since the anaphora as a whole is considered a unitary (albeit lengthy) prayer, no one moment within it can be readily singled out.

[edit] Roman Catholicism

Main article: Eucharist (Catholic Church)

See Mass (Catholic Church) for Catholic worship in the Latin Rite and Divine Liturgy for worship in the Eastern Catholic Churches.

[edit] Anglican

In the Episcopal Church in the United States of America (ECUSA), the Eucharist is designated as the principal service of the Church. The service for Holy Eucharist is found in the Book of Common Prayer for each national Church in the Anglican Communion. The Anglican Church holds the Eucharist as the highest form of worship, the Church's main service. Daily celebrations are now the case in most cathedrals and many parish churches, and there are few churches where Holy Communion is not celebrated at least once every Sunday. The nature of the ritual with which it is celebrated, however, varies according to the churchmanship of the individual parish.

See Book of Common Prayer and Ritualism.

[edit] Lutheran

The Lutheran Eucharistic service is similar in form to the Roman Catholic and "high" Anglican services. Administration of the bread and wine varies between congregations. The bread can be a thin wafer, or leavened or unleavened bread. The wine may be administered via a common cup (the "chalice"), or through individual cups that may be either prefilled or filled from the chalice during the communion. Intinction is acceptable, but rarely used. Some congregations that use wine make grape juice available for those who are abstaining from alcohol, and some will accommodate those with an allergy to wheat or grapes.

[edit] Reformed/Presbyterian

In the Reformed Churches the Eucharist is variously administered. Acknowledging that the bread at the Passover celebration was almost certainly unleavened, some Churches use bread without any raising agent (whether leaven or yeast).^[13] The Presbyterian Church (USA), for instance, prescribes "bread common to the culture." The wine served might be true alcoholic red wine or grape juice, usually served not from a chalice, but from individual cups. Hearkening back to the regulative principle of worship, the Reformed tradition had long eschewed coming forward to receive communion, preferring to have the elements distributed throughout the congregation by the presbyters (elders) more in the style of a shared meal, but some Churches have reappropriated a High Church liturgy in the spirit of Philip Schaff's Mercersburg theology, which held ancient traditions of the Church in higher esteem than did much of the Reformed world. The elements may be found served separately with "consecration" for each element or together. Communion is usually open to all baptized believers, and although often it is reserved for those who are members in good standing of a Bible-believing Church, participation is left as a matter of conscience.

[edit] Baptist

The bread and "fruit of the vine" indicated in Matthew, Mark and Luke as the elements of the Lord's Supper^[14] are interpreted by Baptists as unleavened bread and, in line with their historic stance against partaking of alcoholic beverages, grape juice, which they commonly refer to simply as "the Cup."^[15]

[edit] Unleavened bread versus leavened bread

The time of the Lord's Supper is "the first day of the feast of unleavened bread" described in Matthew 26:17, Mark 14:12, and Luke 22:7. According to Exodus 12:15 and 19, which describes the origins of this feast, not only was unleavened bread used during this feast, but leaven wasn't even allowed within the house. Since only unleavened bread would have been available on this first day of a seven day feast specifically named the "feast of unleavened bread," there should be no question as to the type of bread used. Unleavened bread is defined as bread that contains no leavening agent, neither chemical (baking powder) nor biological (yeast).

[edit] Grape juice versus wine

There are only three references in the Bible that describe what was in the cup or cups used by Jesus during the Lord's Supper: Matthew 26:29, Mark 14:25 and Luke 22:18. In each case the phrase "fruit of the vine" is used to describe the contents.^[16] The Greek words that make up this phrase are "gennema" (in modern critical editions of the New Testament spelled "genema"), meaning "offspring" and by analogy "(agricultural) produce," and "ampelos," meaning "vine." The word "oinos" (wine) is not used. Some conclude that the three evangelists in question chose the phrase "fruit of the vine," rather than the word "wine" to indicate that the cup contained what we would call grape juice. Others see the phrase only as a poetic description of wine, which was then and is still traditionally used as an essential element at the Passover meal, like unleavened bread. Furthermore, there is no evidence whatsoever for the use of unfermented grape juice as a beverage until the 19th century, and if the evangelists had wished to indicate that the cup contained must (unfermented grape juice), they could simply have used the Greek word for it, τρύξ, which does not appear anywhere in the New Testament.^[17]

[edit] Latter Day Saint movement

In the Latter Day Saint movement (also known as Mormonism), the Sacrament is the Lord's Supper, in which participants eat bread and drink wine (or water, in the case of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints since the late 1800s). It is essentially the same as the Eucharist, Communion in some other Christian denominations. Normally in Mormon congregations, the Sacrament is provided every Sunday as part of the Sacrament meeting.

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints the word "ordinance" is used approximately as the word Sacrament is used in Christianity in general.

In the Community of Christ, the word "sacrament" is also used in the more common, generic sense used by most of Christianity, meaning a rite or "ordinance."

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The Sacrament is performed on a weekly basis during Sacrament meeting with exceptions arising during General and Stake conferences). As most males in the Church age 16 years and older are able to perform the ordinance, it is common for wards to send men to the homes of sick (usually homebound) members of the congregation, and administer the sacrament to them. Also, fathers of families occasionally perform it with their families during times of illness or travel, but this requires the approval of the bishop, as it should not replace the regular attendance of congregation meetings.

[edit] Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses commemorate Christ's death as a ransom or propitiatory sacrifice by observing The Lord's Evening Meal, or Memorial, each year on Nisan 14 according to the ancient Jewish calendar. They believe that this is the only celebration commanded for Christians in the Bible. Of those who attend the Memorial a small minority worldwide will partake of the eating of the unleavened bread and the drinking of the wine. (For statistics of the number of partakers in relationship to non-partakers, see Jehovah's Witnesses#Membership)

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that only a small minority, called the "anointed," can partake of the bread and wine. (see Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses#Salvation) Those who actually partake are generally considered to be among the "anointed," though Jehovah's Witnesses believe that some of them may be in error.

The celebration of the Memorial of Christ's Death proceeds as follows: In advance of the Memorial, Jehovah's Witnesses invite anyone that may be interested to attend this special night. The week of the Memorial is generally filled with special activity in the ministry, such as door-to-door work. A suitable hall, for example a Kingdom Hall, is prepared for the occasion. The Memorial begins with a song and a prayer. The prayer is followed by a discourse on the importance of the evening. A table is set with wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah's Witnesses believe the bread stands for Jesus Christ's body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine stands for his blood which redeems from sin. They do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation. Hence, the wine and the bread are merely symbols (sometimes referred to as "emblems"), but they have a very deep and profound meaning for Jehovah's Witnesses. A prayer is offered and the bread is circulated among the audience. Only those who are "anointed" partake. Then another prayer is offered, and the wine is circulated in the same manner. After that, the evening concludes with a final song and prayer.

It is common for the bread and wine to be passed and have no partakers.

[edit] Open and closed communion

Main articles: Open communion, Closed communion, and Full communion

Christian denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may receive the Eucharist together with those not in full communion with them. Closed communion was the universal practice of the early Church. The famed apologist St. Justin Martyr (c. 150) wrote: "No one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true...." For the first several hundred years of Church history, non-members were forbidden even to be present at the sacramental ritual; visitors and catechumens (those still undergoing instruction) were dismissed halfway through the liturgy, after the Bible readings and sermon but before the Eucharistic rite. The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, used in the Byzantine Churches, still has a formula of dismissal of catechumens (not usually followed by any action) at this point.

The ancient Churches, such as the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox exclude non-members from Communion under normal circumstances, though they may allow exceptions, e.g. for non-members in danger of death who share their faith in the reality of the Eucharist and who are unable to have access to a minister of their own religion. Many conservative Protestant communities also practice closed communion, including conservative Lutheran Churches like the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod practices "close" communion, which means that while membership in a Lutheran church is expected, individual pastors may use their discretion, meaning that many LC-MS churches have a more relaxed attitude. The Mennonites and the Landmark Baptist Churches also practice closed communion, as a symbol of exclusive membership and loyalty to the distinctive doctrines of their fellowship.

Most Protestant communities practice open communion, including some Anglican, Reformed, Evangelical, Methodist, and more-liberal Lutherans (such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Church of Sweden). Some open communion communities adhere to a symbolic or spiritual understanding of the Eucharist, so that they have no fear of sacrilege against the literal body and blood of Christ if someone receives inappropriately. Others feel that Christ calls all of his children to his table, regardless of their denominational affiliation. Many Churches that practice open communion offer it only to baptized Christians (regardless of denomination), although this requirement is typically only enforced by the recipients' honesty.

[edit] Theories about Greco-Roman pre-Christian connection

See also: Osiris-Dionysus and Dionysus

Professor Stephen L Harris declared that "long before Jesus linked wine and bread as part of the Christian liturgy (Mark 14:22-25; Luke 22:17-20) the two tokens of divine favor were associated in the Dionysian tradition. In the Bacchae (worshippers of Bacchus, another name for Dionysus), the Athenian playwright Euripides (c. 485-406 BC) has the prophet Tiresias observe that Demeter and Dionysus, respectively, gave humanity two indispensable gifts: grain or bread to sustain life and wine to make life bearable. Harris claimed, in line with Michael Cacoyannis's translation of the play (see below), that Tiresias urges his hearers to see in Dionysus's gift of wine a beverage that brings into communion with the divine.^[18]

Others have expanded on Harris's theory by declaring that an idea of theophagy (eating one's god), or at least of feeding on the life-force of a mystical entity, was characteristic of the central rites of some Greco-Roman and Near-Eastern mystery religions and claiming that the acts and ordinances of Jesus and his apostles were "memorialized" in that context. According to them, the Eucharist conveyed the purported mystical benefits of flesh-eating and blood-drinking that were proclaimed by the proponents of animal sacrifices and of cannibalism, and can be seen to translate the vestiges of ancient animal sacrifice and/or ritualistic cannibalism into the current age.^{[citation needed]}

Another theory that attributes a pre-Christian connection to the Eucharist has been suggested by John Allegro and Carl Ruck. They claim that Jesus was seen as a vegetation god incarnated, like Dionysus and Osiris, not as a human but as an entheogenic plant or fungus or both.^{[citations needed]}

All these theories make light of the fact that Christianity did not begin among people who believed in or practiced the rites of the mystery religions. The first Christians were either Jews or "the God-fearing" (Gentiles who attended Jewish synagogue services but held back from becoming proselytes [cf. Acts 13:16, 13:26]). And, as can be seen, for instance, in 2 Corinthians 6:14-18 and Wisdom 13, Jews of the time had a very negative attitude to forms of worship other than Jewish. Josephus too describes first-century Jews as noted for their fierce monotheism and readiness to die rather than worship pagan gods.^{[citation needed]} Paul's 57 AD First Letter to the Corinthians (1 Corinthians 11:20-29), written less than thirty years after the death of Jesus, and the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 2:42, 2:46) present the rite of "the Lord's supper" or "the breaking of bread" as dating from the very beginning of Christianity, when Christianity was still an entirely Jewish phenomenon. While, by the time that Paul wrote this letter, Christianity was beginning to spread among people of whom some may possibly have been adherents of mystery cults and may thus conceivably have attached to the Eucharistic rite meanings not originally associated with it, the rite did not originate among them. Instead, as indicated in these writings, which are the earliest evidence about it, the Eucharist had already for a quarter of a century been practiced as what has been called "a unique form of Table fellowship" by which the earliest Christians, who were, all of them, Jews, reenacted something that Jesus did and said at his last supper.

The Bacchae, the play by the Athenian tragedian Euripides to which Harris appealed for support for his ideas, speaks of bread and wine as basic gifts to humanity from the Greek gods Demeter and Dionysus. In his very loose translation of this play Michael Cacoyannis instead presents these two gifts as means for entering into communion with the divine:

Next came the son of the virgin, Dionysus.

bringing the counterpart to bread, wine

and the blessings of life's flowing juices.

His blood, the blood of grape,

lightens the burden of our mortal misery...

it is his blood we pour out

to offer Thanks to the Gods. And through him.

we are blessed.^[19]

This, with its references to "the son of the virgin," "his blood," "the blessings of life's flowing juices," is the Christianity-inspired work of Michael Cacoyannis. It is not what Euripides, who lived centuries before Christianity, wrote. He wrote:

For mankind, young man, two elements hold the first place.

The goddess Demeter—that is the soil, whatever name you may wish to call it -

this gives solid nourishment to human beings.

A later arrival, the son of Semele, invented and introduced to mortals

the corresponding liquid drink of the grape-bunch.

It relieves the grief of wretched human beings,

when they are replenished with what flows from the vine.

It bestows sleep, oblivion of each day's troubles.

No other remedy is there for woes.

This, having become a god itself, is poured in libation to the gods,

with the result that it is through it that men have benefits.^[20]

Euripides thus merely states the fact that bread and wine, the same two elements that Christianity sees as chosen by Jesus for the action to be done in his memory, were the basic forms of nourishment in the Mediterranean culture in which Christianity arose. Though what Cacoyannis presents as a translation of Euripides capitalizes the word "Thanks," seemingly in order to evoke the idea of the Eucharist, Euripides in fact made no reference here to any Eucharist-like rite whatever. Neither did he at all picture wine as the blood of Dionysus or call Dionysus "the son of the virgin."

[edit] See also

• Baptism
• Eucharistic discipline
• Eucharistic theology
• Eucharistic theologies contrasted
• Intinction
• Open communion
• Year of the Eucharist
• Eucharistic miracle
• Mithraism—Similarities to Christianity
• Osiris—The Osirian Sacrament
• Sacrament
• Sacrament (Latter Day Saints)
• Sacramental wine

[edit] References

[edit] Books

• 1963 edition of The New Saint Joseph: First Communion Catechism, Baltimore Catechism
• Anderson, S. E. The First Communion
• Chemnitz, Martin. The Lord's Supper. J. A. O. Preus, trans. St. Louis: Concordia, 1979. ISBN 0-570-03275-X
• Dix, Dom Gregory. The Shape of the Liturgy. London: Continuum International, 2005. ISBN 0-8264-7942-1
• Elert, Werner. Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries. N. E. Nagel, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1966. ISBN 0-570-04270-4
• Felton, Gayle. This Holy Mystery. Nashville: Discipleship Resources, 2005. ISBN 0-88177-457-X
• Father Gabriel. Divine Intimacy. Rockford, IL: Tan Books and Publishers, Inc., 1996 reprint ed. ISBN 0-89555-504-2
• Grime, J. H. Close Communion and Baptists
• Jurgens, William A. The Faith of the Early Fathers. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1970. ISBN 0-8146-0432-3
• Kolb, Robert and Timothy J. Wengert, eds. The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000. (ISBN 0-8006-2740-7)
• Lefebvre, Gaspar. The Saint Andrew Daily Missal. Reprint. Great Falls, MT: St. Bonaventure Publications, Inc., 1999.
• Macy, Gary. The Banquet's Wisdom: A Short History of the Theologies of the Lord's Supper. (2005, ISBN 1-878009-50-8)
• McBride, Alfred, O.Praem. Celebrating the Mass. Our Sunday Visitor, 1999.
• Neal, Gregory. Grace Upon Grace 2000. ISBN 0-9679074-0-3
• Nevin, John Williamson. The Mystical Presence: A Vindication of the Reformed or Calvinistic Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist. 1846; Wipf & Stock reprint, 2000. ISBN 1-57910-348-0.
• Oden, Thomas C. Corrective Love: The Power of Communion Discipline. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1995. ISBN 0-570-04803-6
• Sasse, Hermann. This Is My Body: Luther's Contention for the Real Presence in the Sacrament of the Altar. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2001. ISBN 1-57910-766-4
• Schmemann, Alexander. The Eucharist. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1997. ISBN 0-88141-018-7
• Stoffer, Dale R. The Lord's Supper: Believers Church Perspectives
• Stookey, L.H. Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church. Nashville: Abingdon, 1993 ISBN 0-687-12017-9
• Tissot, The Very Rev. J. The Interior Life. 1916, pp. 347-9.
• Wright, N. T. The Meal Jesus Gave Us
• Hahn, Scott. "The Lamb's Supper—Mass as Heaven on Earth." Darton, Longman, Todd. 1999. ISBN 0-232-52500-5

[edit] External links

• http://www.netzwerk-Eucharistie.de.vu—Network of Eucharistic Adoration
• http://www.savior.org/—Live Video Stream of the Eucharist
• http://www.therealpresence.org/eucharst/mir/a3.html—Eucharistic Miracles
• http://www.revneal.org/onlinecommunion.html—Streaming Video of a United Methodist Celebration of the Holy Eucharist
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Lord's Supper

[edit] Liturgical texts & services

• The Ordinary of the Mass, Roman Rite according to current edition of the Roman Missal
• The Ordinary of the Sacred Liturgy according to the Roman Missal of 1962
• The Priest's Service Book Orthodox Divine Liturgy.
• The Book of Common Prayer, used by the Episcopal Church (ECUSA). Contains the liturgy for the Eucharist and other rites.
• Word and Table I, The Eucharistic Liturgy of The United Methodist Church.

[edit] History, theology, practice, etc.

• Eucharist @ the Catholic Encyclopedia and @ the Catholic Dictionary
• EWTN—The Holy Eucharist—Easy yet comprehensive website with Catholic Teaching on the Eucharist
• Paragraph 1376 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church
• This Holy Mystery: A United Methodist Understanding of Holy Communion
• The Duty of Constant Communion by John Wesley
• Holy Communion as a Means of Grace by Gregory S. Neal
• Online Holy Communion: Theological Reflections Regarding The Internet and The Means of Grace by Gregory S. Neal
• Typology and the Real Presence of Jesus in Holy Communion by Gregory S. Neal
• Christians and Alcohol by Hermano Cisco of babylonfalls.org. Considers the symbolism of the wine.
• The Lord's Supper—by Ralph Waldo Emerson, rejecting the Lord's supper as a perpetual rite.
• My Brethren—Studies—The Lord's Supper and the Service of God
• a Baptist viewpoint
• a Church of Christ viewpoint
• a Mennonite viewpoint
• a Reformed (Presbyterian) viewpoint
• Pilgram Marpeck's defense of continuing to practice Lord's Supper (1531)