Eunuch
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A eunuch is a castrated man; the term usually refers to those castrated in order to perform a specific social function, as was common in many societies of the past. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian cities of Lagash in the 21st century BC[citation needed]. Over the millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures such as courtiers or equivalent domestics, treble singers, religious specialists, government officials, military commanders, and guardians of women or harem servants. In some societies, the notion of eunuch has been expanded to include men who are impotent with women or are simply celibate.
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[edit] History
The English word eunuch is from the Greek eune ("bed") and ekhein ("to keep"), effectively "bed keeper." Servants or slaves were usually castrated in order to make them safer servants of a royal court where physical access to the ruler could wield great influence – seemingly lowly domestic functions such as making the ruler's bed, bathing him, cutting his hair, carrying him in his litter or even relaying messages, giving him "the ruler's ear" could impart de facto power on the formally humble but trusted servant, as reflected in the humble origins and etymology of many high offices (e.g. chancellor started out as a servant guarding the entrance to an official's study). Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to the military, the aristocracy, or to a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least), and were thus seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private 'dynasty'. Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion. In cultures that had both harems and eunuchs, eunuchs were sometimes used as harem servants (compare the female odalisque) or seraglio guards.
[edit] Ancient Middle East
Eunuchs were familiar figures in the Assyrian Empire (ca. 850 till 622 B.C.), in the court of the Achaemenid emperors of Persia and the Egyptian Pharaohs (down to the Lagid dynasty known as Ptolemies, ending with Cleopatra). In 1796, Agha Mohammad Khan Ghajar was crowned as Shah of Iran and established the Qajar dynasty, the only eunuch to be crowned Shah.
[edit] China
In ancient China castration was both a traditional punishment (until the Sui Dynasty) and a means of gaining employment in the Imperial service. At the end of the Ming Dynasty there were 70,000 eunuchs (宦官 huàn'guān, or 太監 tàijiān) in the Imperial palace. The value of such employment—certain eunuchs gained immense power that may have superseded that of the prime ministers—was such that self-castration had to be made illegal. The number of eunuchs in Imperial employ had fallen to 470 in 1912, when their employment ceased. The justification of the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. Concurrently, a similar system existed in Vietnam.
The tension between depraved eunuchs in the service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials resisting their tyranny is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his History of Government, Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs, who were valuable advisors to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often was procrastination on the part of a privileged class which blindly resisted any change, whether it be for the good or the bad of the empire.
[edit] Greco-Roman practice
The practice was also well established in Europe among the Greeks and Romans, although more rarely as court functionaries than in Asia. The third sex Galli of Cybele were considered by some to be eunuchs. In late Rome, emperors such as Constantine were surrounded by eunuchs for such functions as bathing, hair cutting, dressing, and bureaucratic functions, in effect acting as a shield between the emperor and his administrators from physical contact. Eunuchs were believed loyal and dispensable.
At the Byzantine imperial court, there were a great number of eunuchs employed in domestic and administrative functions, actually organized as a separate hierarchy, following a parallel career of their own. Archieunuchs—each in charge of a group of eunuchs—were among the principal officers in Constantinople, under the emperors.[1]
It was only after the Muslim Arabs conquered parts of the Roman Empire that they acquired eunuchs from the Romans, and not knowing what else to do with them, made them into harem guards. For the Eunuchs in the Ottoman Great Sultan's harem and wider palace service, see the (Topkapi) Seraglio.[2]
[edit] The hijra of India
The Ancient Indian Kama Sutra refers to people of a "third sex" (trtyaprakrti), who can be dressed either in men's or in women's clothes and perform fellatio on men. The term has been translated as "eunuchs" (as in Sir Richard Burton's translation of the book), but these persons have also been considered to be the equivalent of the modern hijra of India.
Hijra, a Hindi term traditionally translated into English as "eunuch", actually refers to what modern Westerners would call male-to-female transgender people and effeminate homosexuals (although some of them reportedly identify as belonging to a third sex). Some of them undergo ritual castration, but the majority do not. They usually dress in saris (traditional Indian garb worn by women) and wear heavy make-up. They typically live in the margins of society, face discrimination [3] and earn their living in various ways, e.g. by coming uninvited at weddings, births, new shop openings and other major family events and singing until they are paid or given gifts to go away.[4] The ceremony is supposed to bring good luck and fertility, while the curse of an unappeased hijra is feared by many. Other sources of income for the hijra are begging and prostitution. The begging is accompanied by singing and dancing and the hijras usually get the money easily. Some Indian provincial officials have used the assistance of hijras to collect taxes in the same fashion; they knock on the doors of shopkeepers, while dancing and singing, and embarrass them into paying.[5] Recently, hijras have started to found organisations to improve their social condition and fight discrimination. There has even been a wave of hijra entering politics and being elected to high political positions.
[edit] Religious castration
Among the earliest records of human religion are accounts of castration as an act of devotion, and sacred eunuchs are found in spiritual roles. Archaeological finds at Çatalhöyük, a large Neolithic town of southern Anatolia, suggest that such practises were common in the worship of the goddess Cybele in 7500 BC. The Galli, later Roman followers of Cybele, also practiced ritual self-castration, known as sanguinaria. The practice continued throughout Christian times, with many of the early church castrating themselves as an act of devotion.[6]
A famous example is the early theologian Origen, who found scriptural justification in the Matthew 19:12. In this passage, Jesus stated: "For there are some eunuchs, which were so born from their mother's womb: and there are some eunuchs, which were made eunuchs of men: and there be selves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it." (King James Version)
Tertullian, a 2nd century Church Father, described Jesus himself and Paul of Tarsus as spadones, which is translated as "eunuchs" in some contexts.[7] However, these statements can be interpreted as a metaphor for celibacy, especially given the broad meaning of the term spado in Late Antiquity (see Non-castrated eunuchs below).
Eunuch priests have served various goddesses from India for many centuries. Similar phenomena are exemplified by some modern Indian communities of the hijra type, which are associated with a deity and with certain rituals and festivals - notably the devotees of Yellammadevi, or jogappas, who are not castrated[8] and the Ali of southern India, of whom at least some are.[9]
The 18th-century Russian Skoptzy (скопцы) sect was an example of a castration cult, where its members regarded castration as a way of renouncing the sins of the flesh. Several members of the 20th century Heaven's Gate cult were found to have been castrated, apparently voluntarily and for the same reasons.
[edit] Castrato singers
Eunuchs castrated before puberty were also valued and trained in several cultures for their exceptional voices, which retained a childlike and other-worldly flexibility and treble pitch; unfortunately the choice had to be made at an age the boy would not yet be able to consciously choose whether to sacrifice his sexual potency, and there was no guarantee that the voice would remain of musical excellence after the operation. Such eunuchs were known as castrati.
As women were sometimes forbidden to sing in Church, their place was taken by castrati. The practice, known as castratism, remained popular until the 18th century and was known into the 19th century. The last famous Italian castrato, Giovanni Velluti, died in 1861. The sole existing recording of a castrato singer documents the voice of Alessandro Moreschi, one of the last eunuchs in the Sistine Chapel choir. Unfortunately, the early 20th century recording is of poor quality and Moreschi, who was never trained for the stage, is not considered a great singer.
[edit] Non-castrated "eunuchs"
According to Byzantine historian Kathryn Ringrose,[10] while the pagans of Classical Antiquity based their notions of gender in general and eunuchs in particular on physiology (the genitalia), the Byzantine Christians based them on behaviour and more specifically procreation. Hence, by Late Antiquity the term "eunuch" had come to be applied not only to castrated men, but also to a wide range of men with comparable behaviour, who had "chosen to withdraw from worldly activities and thus refused to procreate".[11] The broad sense of the term "eunuch" is reflected in the compendium of Roman law created by Justinian I in the 6th century known as the Digest or Pandects. That text distinguishes between two types of "eunuchs" - spadones (a general term denoting "one who has no generative power, an impotent person, whether by nature or by castration",[12] D 50.16.128) and castrati (castrated males, physically incapable of procreation). Spadones are eligible to marry women (D 23.3.39.1), institute posthumous heirs (D 28.2.6), and adopt children (Institutions of Justinian 1.11.9), unless they are castrati.
[edit] Historically significant eunuchs
In chronological order.
- Aspamistres or Mithridates (5th century BC) Bodyguard of Xerxes I of Persia, and (with Artabanus) his murderer.
- Artoxares: A courtier of Artaxerxes I and Darius II of Persia.
- Bagoas (4th century BC) Prime minister of king Artaxerxes III of Persia, and his murderer. (Bagoas is an old Persian/Farsai word meaning Eunuch.)
- Bagoas (4th century BC) A favorite of Alexander the Great. Influential in changing Alexander's attitude toward Persians and therefore in the king's policy decision to try to integrate the conquered peoples fully into his Empire as loyal subjects. He thereby paved the way for the relative success of Alexander's Seleucid successors and greatly enhanced the penetration of Greek culture to the East.
- Sima Qian - old romanization: Ssu-ma Chi'en (2nd/1st century BC) Was the first person to have practiced modern historiography - gatherering and analyzing both primary and secondary sources in order to write his monumental history of the Chinese empire.
- Ganymedes (1st century BC) Highly capable adviser and general of Cleopatra VII's sister & rival, Princess Arsinoe. Defeated and almost killed Julius Caesar in battle at Alexandria, capturing his cloak in the process. Could have changed the history of Rome and of the eastern Mediterranean if he had not been displaced through Egyptian court intrigue.
- Pothinus (1st century BC) Regent for pharaoh Ptolemy XII.
- Cai Lun - Ts'ai Lun in the old romanization (1st/2nd century CE) Reasonable evidence exists to suggest that he was truly the inventor of paper. At the very least, he established the importance of paper and standardized its manufacture in the Chinese empire.
- Origen - early Christian theologian, castrated himself based on his reading of the Gospel of Matthew 19:12 (For there are eunuchs, who were born so from their mother's womb: and there are eunuchs, who were made so by men: and there are eunuchs, who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. He that can take, let him take it.). Despite the fact that the early Christian theologian Tertullian wrote that Jesus was a eunuch, there is no corroboration in any other early source. (The Skoptsy did, however, believe it to be true.) Tertullian also wrote that he knew, personally, the author of the Gospel of Matthew, and that he was a eunuch. Again, this is not attested elsewhere.
- Eutropius (5th century CE) Only eunuch known to have attained the highly distinguished and very influential position of Roman Consul.
- Narses (478-573) General of Byzantine Emperor, Justinian I, responsible for destroying the Ostrogoths in 552 at the Battle of Taginae in Italy and saving Rome for the empire.
- Ignatius of Constantinople (799-877). Twice Patriarch of Constantinople during troubled political times [847-858 and 867-877]. First absolutely unquestioned eunuch saint, recognised by both the Orthodox and Roman Churches. (There are a great many early saints who were probably eunuchs, though few either as influential nor unquestioned as to their castration.)
- Ly Thuong Kiet (1019-1105), general during the Ly Dynasty in Vietnam. Penned what is considered the first Vietnamese declaration of independence. Regarded as a Vietnamese national hero.
- Pierre Abélard (1079-1142), French scholastic philosopher and theologian.
- Zheng He (1371-1433), famous admiral who led huge Chinese fleets of exploration around the Indian Ocean.
- Judar Pasha (late 16th century) A blonde, blue-eyed Spanish eunuch who became the head of the Moroccan invasion force into the Songhai Empire. In 1591, despite overwhelming odds, his forces conquered a large swath of sub-Saharan Africa for the Saadi Dynasty and firmly entrenched Islam in the region.
- Carlo Broschi, called Farinelli (1705-82), the most famous Italian castrato.
See also Eunuchs
[edit] Some other famous eunuchs
- Shu Diao Intrigant eunuch who was responsible of a successor civil war in the feudal state of Qi
- Zhao Gao Favourite of Qin Shihuangdi, who plotted against Li Si (died 210 BC)
- Zhang Rang Head of the infamous "10 Changshi" (Ten attendants) of Eastern Han Dynasty
- Huang Hao Eunuch in the state of Shu; also appears in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms
- Cen Hun Eunuch in the state of Wu during the Three Kingdoms Period
- Gao Lishi A loyal and trusted friend of Tang emperor Xuanzong
- Li Fuguo The Tang eunuch who began another era of eunuch rule
- Yu Chao'en Tang eunuch who began his "career" as army supervisor
- Tong Guan A eunuch of Song Dynasty; also appears in the novel Water Margin
- Wang Zhen First Ming eunuch with much power, see Tumu Crisis
- Gang Bing Patron Saint of Eunuchs in China who castrated himself to demonstrate his loyalty to emperor Yongle
- Liu Jin Another "famous" eunuch despot
- Wei Zhongxian Most infamous eunuch in Chinese history
- An Dehai Corrupt eunuch of Qing Dynasty - Favorite of Empress Dowager Cixi
- Li Lianying Another despotic eunuch of the Qing Dynasty
- Sun Yaoting (1902–1996) last surviving imperial eunuch of Chinese history
- Boston Corbett, who killed John Wilkes Booth, castrated himself to avoid temptation from prostitutes.
- Nick Evesham, the famous Belgian-born computer programmer who in the late 1970s played a cruicial role in the SATA program.
- Michael P. Pea, Olympic ice figure skater.
[edit] Eunuchs in Fiction
- In Sondheim's musical, ''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, there are several eunuch characters as guards to the local house of Courtesans.
- In Shakespeare's Twelfth Night Viola disguises herself as a man and asks to be introduced to Duke Orsino as a eunuch.
- Eunuchs appear often as villains in Hong Kong kung fu and wuxia films set in ancient China. For example, the films "Dragon Inn (Xin long men ke zhan)", "Butterfly Sword (Xin liu xing hu die jian)", and "A Touch of Zen (Hsia nu)" all feature a eunuch or a group of eunuchs as the main villain. A popular eunuch villain used in ancient China stories is Eunuch Wei, who is based on a historical figure named Wei Zhongxian. Eunuch villains are usually in charge of powerful political posts, such as being the leader of the East Chamber.
- The Queen Salmissra, in David Edding's The Belgariad and The Malloreon, is only allowed to be served by eunuchs. Her Chief Eunuch Sadi becomes a principal character in the Mallorean, and is referred to in "The Prophecy" as "The Man who is no Man."
- The character and narrator Taita in Wilbur Smith's "Egyptian" (1991-) series of novels is a eunuch (performed as a punishment while a slave).
- Varys, the spymaster, is a eunuch and a character in George RR Martin's, epic fantasy series A Song of Ice and Fire. There are also many other eunuchs of minor importance. There is also an army of eunuchs called the Unsullied, led by the Dragon Princess Daenerys Targaryen.
- Bagoas was the eunuch favorite of Alexander the Great (referenced above). Bagoas is the main character and narrator of The Persian Boy, a 1972 historical novel by Mary Renault.
- In the Dune series, Count Hasimir Fenring was a genetic eunuch and the Emperor's closest friend and advisor.
- Anne Rice wrote of castrati in her 1982 novel "Cry To Heaven". The story is centered on the castrati characters of Guido Maffeo and Tonio Treschi, teacher and student.
- In Pirates of the Caribbean: Curse of the Black Pearl (2003), and Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (2006), Johnny Depp's character Jack Sparrow refers to Orlando Bloom's character Will as being a eunuch several times. These lines were apparently improvised by Johnny Depp.
- In Red Dwarf, Arnold Rimmer claims that in a past life he was Alexander the Great's chief eunuch
- In Aladdin from the Arabian Nights, Princess Badroulbadour has several eunuchs as servants as well as woman servants.
- Fiona McIntosh's "Percheron" series centers on a harem, guarded by Eunuchs.
- In the book "Everworld: Realm of the Reaper" which is the fourth book in the Everworld series by K.A. Applegate Eunuchs guard the City of Hel (also known as "Her City").
- In the movie, The Adventures of Baron Munchhausen, the Sultan sings a song about the tougher parts of a eunuch's life.
- In The Blackadder episode Born to be King, Edmund Blackadder is mistaken for a eunuch by Dougal McAngus, Third Duke of Argyll
[edit] See also
[edit] Notes
- ^ This article incorporates content from the 1728 Cyclopaedia, a publication in the public domain. [1]
- ^ Lad, Jateen. "Panoptic Bodies. Black Eunuchs in the Topkapi Palace", Scroope: Cambridge Architecture Journal, No.15, 2003, pp.16-20.
- ^ Ravaging the Vulnerable: Abuses Against Persons at High Risk of HIV Infection in Bangladesh, Human Rights Watch, August 2003. Report online.
See also: Peoples Union of Civil Liberties (Karnataka) Report on Human Rights Violations Against the Transgender Community, released in September 2003. Reported in Being a Eunuch, By Siddarth Narrain, for Frontline, 14 October, 2003. - ^ [2] Eunuchs 'cut off man's penis'. By Baldev Chauhan BBC correspondent in Himachal Pradesh. BBC News. Thursday, 24 July 2003.
- ^ Dancing eunuchs taxing red-faced shopkeepers. Reuters. November 10, 2006.
- ^ Hester, J. David (2005). Eunuchs and the Postgender Jesus: Matthew 19:12 and Transgressive Sexualities. Journal for the Study of the New Testament, Vol. 28, No. 1, 13-40 (2005)
- ^ Tertullian, On Monogamy, 3: “...He stands before you, if you are willing to copy him, as a voluntary spado (eunuch) in the flesh.” And elsewhere: "The Lord Himself opened the kingdom of heaven to eunuchs and He Himself lived as a eunuch. The apostle [Paul] also, following His example, made himself a eunuch..." Tertullian also declared: "The kingdom of heaven is thrown open to eunuchs."
- ^ Yellamma cult of India
- ^ The Mystery of the Threshold: "Ali" of Southern India
- ^ Wells, Collin. Review of The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium, 2003 by Kathryn M. Ringrose. Retrieved on 2006-10-21..
- ^ Review of Herdt, Gilbert (ed.) (1994) Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History. Retrieved on 2006-10-21.
- ^ Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary. Retrieved on 2006-10-21..
