Homosexuality and Hinduism
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Hindu views of homosexuality are diverse, as Hinduism is a heterogeneous religion with no central doctrinal authority. Same-sex relations and gender variance have been represented within Hinduism from Vedic times through to the present day, in rituals, law books, mythical narratives, commentaries, paintings and sculptures. The extent to which these representations embrace or reject homosexuality is disputed. In Hindu society, there are four worthy goals, in human life, the Purusharthas, 1) dharma, 2) artha, 3) kama and 4) moksha, in that order. While Hindus texts on dharma, artha and moksa mention homosexuality only briefly, the Kama scriptures describe it in much detail, more so than any other of the world's great religions.
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[edit] Hindu texts
The Vedas, which form the foundation of Hinduism for most, do not refer explicitly to homosexuality but do refer to Kama and deep love between men.
Mythologist and author Devdutt Pattanaik summarised the place of homosexuality in Hindu literature: "though not part of the mainstream, its existence was acknowledged but not approved."[1] People of a third gender (tritiya-prakrti), neither men nor women, are referred to throughout the literature, and modern readers often draw parallels between these and modern lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender sexual identities.
Ruth Vanita argues that proscriptive works tend to place a negative value on sexual and gender diversity, but the narrative traditions are more positive.
In his book, "Tritiya-Prakriti: People of the Third Sex," Vaishnava author and devotee Amara Das Wilhelm demonstrates how ancient Hinduism was originally much more accommodating toward homosexuality and gender diversity than modern expressions of the religion are today.
[edit] Manu Smriti
The Manu Smriti, an important Hindu law code probably compiled between 200 BC and 200 AD, prescribes simple atonements for certain instances of homosexuality between ordinary males or females (not belonging to the third gender). If a stri [woman] was found having sexual relations with a kanya [girl virgin, aged 8 - 12], for instance, her "head should be shaved immediately or two of her fingers should be cut off, and she should be made to ride on a donkey."[2] If two kanya have sex, each "must be fined two hundred (panas), pay the double of her (nuptial) fee, and receive ten (lashes with a) rod."[3] It should be noted, however, that the same punishment of cutting off two fingers is prescribed for men who commit the same act; thus, the punishment is not for homosexuality but rather for the violation of the young girl. There are no punishments prescribed for relations between adult women in Manu-smriti.
For men, "causing an injury to a priest, smelling wine or things that are not to be smelled, crookedness, and sexual union with a man are traditionally said to cause loss of caste"[4] In the same chapter, the atonement for male offenders is a ritual bath: "A twice-born man who commits an unnatural offence with a male, or has intercourse with a female in a cart drawn by oxen, in water, or in the day-time, shall bathe, dressed in his clothes."[5] Here it can be noted that no punishments are offered for male homosexuality (other than loss of caste).
However, the majority of sexual matters dealt with by the law books are heterosexual in nature, and the punishments prescribed for heterosexual transgressions are often more severe. For example, "A man who is not a Brahmana ought to suffer death for adultery (samgrahana)" (2.8.359).
The Manu Smriti also notes the biological origins of a third gender: "A male child is produced by a greater quantity of male seed, a female child by the prevalence of the female; if both are equal, a third-sex child or boy and girl twins are produced; if either are weak or deficient in quantity, a failure of conception results." (3.49).
[edit] Narada Smriti
The Narada Smriti, written around 400 AD, forbids the marriage of third gender men (mukhebhaga - men who perform oral sex on other men) to women: "These four [irsyaka, sevyaka, vataretas, and mukhebhaga] are to be completely rejected as unqualified for marriage, even for a woman who has been raped." (Narada Smriti, 1.12.15) This quote is particularly interesting since homosexual men are typically forced to marry women in modern expressions of Hinduism.
[edit] Kama Sutra
One part of the Hindu canon is the Kama Sutra, an important surviving work from the Kama Shastra tradition of Sanskrit literature. It was compiled by the philosopher Vatsyayana during the 4th century AD from earlier texts, and describes homosexual practises in several places, as well as a range of sexes and genders.
The author describes techniques by which male or female people of a third sex and "wanton women" perform fellatio.[6] This passage has been variously interpreted as referring to both butch and femme gay people, transgender people, eunuchs,[7] male and female transvestites ("the male takes on the appearance of a female and the female takes on the appearance of the male"),[8] or two kinds of biological males, one dressed as a woman, the other as a man.[9] In truth, the third sex is comprised of a variety of types of men and women who, for one reason or another, are more attracted toward their own gender rather than the opposite sex.
The Kama Sutra describes both masculine and feminine types of homosexuals and also suggests their various occupations. While feminine types were often engaged as domestic servants, flower-sellers and guardians of the women's gynaceum, masculine types are mentioned as barbers, valets, house attendants and masseurs who often doubled as male prostitutes. Verse 2.9.36 of the Kama Sutra mentions how some homosexual men were known to live together in loving unions or "marriages" (parigraha).
The Kama Sutra also refers to svairini, who are "independent women who frequent their own kind or others" (2.8.26) — or, in another passage: "the liberated woman, or svairini, is one who refuses a husband and has relations in her own home or in other houses" (6.6.50). In a famous commentary on the Kama Sutra from the 13th century, the Jayamangala, explains: "A woman known for her independence, with no sexual bars, and acting as she wishes, is called svairini. She makes love with her own kind. She strokes her partner at the point of union, which she kisses. Once she has won the girl's trust, the svairini practices the acts mentioned above, pitilessly, ill-treating the girl's pubis" (Jayamangala on Kama Sutra 2.8.13).
[edit] Other views
Like Sikhs, whose scriptures are also silent on homosexuality, many Hindus would view homosexuality as wrong as one acceptable duty for a Hindu, who does not become a monk is to be a householder with a wife and family in a religious married life. Interesingly, all seven great sages of Hinduism or Saptarishi were all married so married life was not incompatible with religious life. For example, the great sage, Agastya felt it was his duty to get married and sire children to fulfill his duties to his ancestors. Since homosexuals cannot procreate, many Hindus would argue that homosexuality, which cannot result in procreation, is unnatural and not part of dharmic living. Thus, they would view homosexual relations as a product of unnatural lust and since lust is condemned in the Gita, as one of the gates to hell or Naraka, thus, homosexual relations are wrong. Furthermore, Krishna said in the Gita, Chapter 7, verse 11, that He is desire, which is not contrary to dharma. Many would interpret that statement to support a view of marriage where sex is for procreation and any sexual relations outside of marriage are against dharma. On the other hand, if we consider the Hindu concept of a third sex, it is clear that not all beings are intended to procreate. Others would argue that since homosexuals can experience romantic love, homosexual relationships are not all the product of lust and in many cases transcend lust altogether.
Proponents of homosexuality argue:
- There is a long history in India of including homosexuals as part of society, and sacred Hindu texts mention and describe homosexuality more accurately than other any religion.
- Nowhere in the Hindu sacred texts is romantic love excluded to all but a man and woman, so there are no religious grounds to make a statement to the contrary. The contrary point of view is just because an issue is not discussed in the scriptures does not make a conduct morally acceptable. Indeed, Hinduism is such a diverse and multi-faceted religion that some Hindu sects will feel free to embrace their homosexual brothers and sisters even while others exclude and reject them.
- All human beings require intimate and meaningful relationships, and denying this to persons simply because they are homosexual creates serious repercussions not only to the persons themselves but to society as a whole. This statement may be refuted by many Hindus as celibate monks devote their entire lives in the pursuit of God and do not have intimate relationships.
- Since homosexuals can experience romantic love, homosexual sexual relationships are not all the product of lust.
- Sexual expression within a loving relationship is encouraged by Hinduism because it is not an expression of lust, but an expression of love and devotion to each others' happiness. Therefore, homosexuals in loving relationships should be allowed to express their love on all levels. A contrary point of view by many Hindus that a loving relationship inevitably includes progeny and since homosexuals cannot procreate, such a relationship is not akin to a typical relationship of husband and wife but more similar to a couple that is sterile.
[edit] Hindu Religious Narratives
In the Hindu narrative tradition, stories of gods and mortals changing gender are common.[10] Sometimes they also engage in sexual activities as different genders.
[edit] Mahabharata
In the Mahabharata, the hero Arjuna takes a "vow of eunuchism" to live as the third sex for a year: "O lord of the Earth, I will declare myself as one of the neuter sex. O monarch, it is, indeed difficult to hide the marks of the bowstring on my arms. I will, however, cover both my cicatrized arms with bangles. Wearing brilliant rings on my ears and conch-bangles on my wrists and causing a braid to hang down from my head, I shall, O king, appear as one of the third sex, Vrihannala by name."[11]
Another important character, Sikhandi, is born female, but raised as a boy. Sihkandi's father, King Drupada, had begged the god Mahadeva to give him a son, to which Mahadeva replied: "Thou shalt have a child who will be a female and male. Desist, O king, it will not be otherwise." When Sikhandi comes of age and marries, Sikhandi's wife "soon came to know that [Sikhandi] was a women like herself." Fleeing from the unnamed wife's enraged father, Sikhandi encounters a male Yaksha (nature spirit) in the forest, and they agree to swap sexes. Now in a male body, Sikhandi proves to his father-in-law that he is truly male, after the latter sends "a number of young ladies of great beauty" to Sikhandi to test him. They report back that he is "a powerful person of the masculine sex," and Sikhandi becomes a skilled and famous warrior, playing a pivotal role in the war.[12]
[edit] Padma Purana
The hero Arjuna also changes sex in a story from the Padma Purana, becoming a woman called Arjuni and desiring the male god Krishna. Arjuni is "overcome with desire" for Krishna — "His every limb seemed to be that of the god of love, satiated with the pleasure of rasa." Seeing that Arjuni was aroused, "the all-knowing Hrishikesa [Krishna] took her hand and indulged in all the sports in the forest. The Great Lord sported with her secretly, at will. Then putting His arm on her shoulder, and coming to Sharada, He said: ‘Quickly bathe this slender, gently smiling lady, who is exhausted with play, in the western lake.'" Upon entering the water, Arjuni is transformed back into Arjuna. Then, "Krishna, seeing that Arjuna was depressed and heartbroken, touched him with His magic hand, so that he became aware of his nature", saying, "O Arjuna, you will curse Me if you talk to anyone about the secret which you wanted to know and have experienced."[13]
[edit] Religious art
Medieval Hindu temples such as those at Khajuraho depict sexual acts in sculptures on the external walls. The meaning of the erotic images is disputed. Some of these scenes involve same-sex sexuality:
- An orgiastic group of three women and one man, on the southern wall of the Kandariya Mahadeva temple in Khajuraho. One of the women is caressing another.
- A similar group, also on the southern wall, shows a woman facing the viewer, standing on her head, apparently engaged in intercourse, although her partner is facing away from the viewer and their gender cannot be determined. She is held by two female attendants on either side and reaches out to touch one of them in her pubic area.
- Also at Khajuraho, a relief of two women embracing one another.
- At the Lakshmana temple in Khajuraho (954 AD), a man receives fellatio from a seated male as part of an orgiastic scene.
- At the Shiva temple at Ambernath, constructed in 1060 AD, a badly weathered relief suggests an erotic interest between two women.
- At the Rhajarani Temple in Bhuveshvar, Orissa, dating from the 10th or 11th century, a sculpture depicts two women engaged in oral sex.
- A 12th century Shiva temple in Bagali, Karnataka depicts a scene of apparent oral sex between two males on a sculpture below the sikhara.
- At Padhavli near Gwalior, a ruined temple from the 10th century AD shows a man within an orgiastic group receiving fellatio from another male.
[edit] Contemporary Hindu society
Sexuality is rarely discussed openly in contemporary Hindu society, and in modern India, sex between men has been illegal since it was made so under British rule in 1860. Homosexuality is largely a taboo subject — especially among the strongly religious. This is gradually changing, however. In a 2004 survey, most — though not all — swamis said they opposed the concept of a Hindu-sanctified gay marriage.[14] Some liberal Hindu reform movements, especially those in the West, publicly support social acceptance of lesbians and gays.
Hijras, who are seen as a third gender, mostly live on the margins of society. They are comprised of what is known in the West as male-to-female transgenders and effeminate homosexuals. Homosexual men who are able to pass as ordinary males are typically pressured into hiding their sexual orientation and marrying women in modern Hindu society.
Psychoanalyst Sudhir Kakar writes that Hindus are more accepting of "deviance or eccentricity" than are Westerners, who treat sexual variance as "anti-social or psychopathological, requiring 'correction' or 'cure'".[15] Hindus, he argues, believe instead that each individual must fulfil their personal destiny as they travel the path towards moksha (transcendence).
The dynamic between homosexuals and Hindu Nationalism is a complex one. On one hand, Professor of women's studies and world religions Paola Bacchetta argues that "queerphobia is one of the pillars of Hindu nationalism".[16]. Deepa Mehta's 1996 film Fire, which depicts a romantic relationship between two Hindu women, was banned for "religious insensitivity"[17] after Hindutva groups attacked cinemas where it was being screened. Similar protests occurred in 2004 against the lesbian-themed film Girlfriend — even though the portrayal of lesbianism was this time distinctly unsympathetic.[18].
On the other hand, one of India's most prominent Gay activists, Ashok Row Kavi, has expressed some sympathy with the Hindutva movement, particularly when he condemned the lenient approach of the left-wing politicians towards Pakistan[19][20].This suggests a more complex dynamic between gays and Hindu Nationalists.In addition, Hindutva groups attacked screenings of "Fire" not because of the depiction of homosexuality but because it allegedly denigrated Hindu deities and depicted incestuous relationship.
[edit] References
- ^ Pattanaik, Devdutt (2001). Homosexuality in Ancient India, Debonair 2000 or 2001. Essay available online from GayBombay.org.
- ^ Manu Smriti chapter 8, verse 370. Text online. Translator Georg Bühler translates kanya as "damsel".
- ^ Manu Smriti chapter 8, verse 369. Text online.
- ^ Manu Smriti chapter 11, verse 68. Text online.
- ^ Manu Smriti chapter 11, verse 175. Text online.
- ^ Kama Sutra, Chapter 9, "Of the Auparishtaka or Mouth Congress". Text online (Richard Burton 1883 translation).
- ^ Richard Burton's 1883 translation
- ^ Artola, George (1975). The Transvestite in Sanskrit Story and Drama. Annals of Oriental Research 25. p.57.
- ^ Sweet, Michael J and Zwilling, Leonard (1993) The First Medicalization: The Taxonomy and Etiology of Queerness in Classical Indian Medicine. Journal of the History of Sexuality 3. p. 600
- ^ O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger (1980). Women, Androgynes, and Other Mystical Beasts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 302-4
Thadani, Giti (1996). Sakhiyani: Lesbian Desire in Ancient and Modern India. London: Cassell. p. 65
Pattanaik, Devdutt (2002). The Man Who Was a Woman and Other Queer Tales from Hindu Lore, Haworth Press, ISBN 1-56023-181-5 - ^ Mahabharata (Virata-parva), book 2, translated by Ganguli, Kisari Mohan. Project Gutenberg.
- ^ Mahabharata, book 5, Chapter 191-5.
- ^ Padma Purana 5.74.60-198. Cited in Vanita, Ruth and Saleem Kidwai (eds.) (2000). Same-Sex love in India: Readings from Literature and History. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-22169-X. p. 92-93
- ^ Discussions on Dharma, by Rajiv Malik, in Hinduism Today. October/November/December 2004.
- ^ Kakar, Sundir (1981). The Inner World: A Psycho-analytic Study of Childhood and Society in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 39
- ^ Bacchetta, Paola (1999). When the (Hindu) Nation Exiles Its Queers, Social Text, No. 61 (Winter, 1999), pp. 141-166
- ^ Entry on the movie "Fire", from IMDB (Internet Movie Database). Accessed on Aug 9 2006.
- ^ 'Girlfriend' causes India storm, by Jayshree Bajoria, correspondent in Bombay for BBC News.
See also: Lesbian-Themed Bollywood Films Provoke Violence, Dialogue, by Sarah Warn, June 2004, for afterellen.com - ^ Gulam Ali Par Gussa Aata Hai - Metro Beat, by Ashok Row Kavi
- ^ Same Sex Love in India by Ashok Row Kavi
[edit] Further reading
- Same-Sex Love In India: Readings From Literature and History by Ruth Vanita and Saleem Kidwai. New York, NY: Palgrave, 2001.
- The Man Who Was a Woman and Other Queer Tales from Hindu Lore by Devdutt Pattanaik. Binghamton, NY: Harrington Park Press, 2002.
- Tritiya-Prakriti: People of the Third Sex by Amara Das Wilhelm. Philadelphia, PA: Xlibris Corporation, 2003.
- The Complete Kama Sutra by Alain Danielou. Rochester, VT: Park Street Press, 1994.
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- The Gay and Lesbian Vaishnava Association - Information and support for LGBT Vaishnavas and Hindus.
- Human Rights Campaign: Hinduism - HRC section on Homosexuality and Hinduism, by Ruth Vanita
- Why should homosexuality be a crime? - An article in The Times of India advocating tolerance of homosexuality in present day India.
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