Media influence
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Media influence refers to the way in which the mass media in all their forms (television, film, advertising and similar forms) affect the way we, as an audience, behave and act in our everyday lives.
The growth of media as an industry has accelerated over the past few years with new forms such as DVD and the internet changing the way we, the audience, consume and receive media. This has caused some media theorists to call into question the influence that the media have over our attitudes and beliefs.
The hypodermic needle model is a theory that has been held by media theorists since the early 19th century and suggests that the media can be seen as an 'intravenous injection' of message. In other words, any message conveyed by the media is willingly and unquestioningly accepted for its preferred reading by the audience. Certain events support this theory, such as the 1938 radio play of The War of the Worlds by Orson Welles that was broadcast in the United States, its realistic tone and execution inciting panic within the audience and causing riots in towns. However, this theory is discredited by common sense observation. If this theory is nomothetic as it suggests, then we would all respond immediately to any media text we consume. Therefore, the theory's flaw lies in the vast number of intervening variables that alter a person's perception of media messages.
Another example of a passive audience theory is the Inoculation model which is a long term effect model. This states that upon being exposed to a media message, the audience becomes immediately 'immune' to them. So, for example, long term exposure to a violent message will result in a desensitization to that degree of violence. This theory was used to explain the case of James Bulger, in which two boys murdered a child. This invoked a moral panic that saw the film Child's Play 3 being blamed for the violent behaviour. However, there was no evidence that the Inoculation effect had led to this. In fact, there was little to suggest that boys had even seen the film. However, this theory suffers from the same shortfalls as the Hypodermic syringe effect. It sees the audience as entirely passive and impressionable. Therefore, it is commonly discredited by media theorists.
It has been suggested that the extent to which an audience engages with a media text can be roughly split into three degrees. The first of these is primary involvement, in which the audience is solely concentrating on consuming the media text. For example, they are sitting down solely to watch their favorite program on television. Secondary involvement is when an audience's concentration is split between the media text and another distraction. For example, working on the computer while watching television. Tertiary involvement is when the media text is merely in the background, with no real concentration upon it at all. For example, glancing at a newspaper on a crowded train. While this theory is somewhat simplistic, it provides a clear and probable explanation as to the changes in audience reception.
Perhaps the most widely accepted theory on audience reception is Denis McQuail's Uses and Gratifications model. This places emphasis on why audiences consume media. The first reason outlined in the model are the need to reinforce your own behaviour by identifying with roles and values presented in the media. Secondly, we need to feel some kind of interaction with other people; this is offered by text such as soap operas and lifestyle magazines. The third reason is the need for security in our lifes. Media offer us a window to the world that allows education and the acquisition of information. The final reason is the need for entertainment through both escapism and the need for emotional release, such as laughter. A strength of this theory is the emphasis on the audience as active in the reception of media. However, this would suggest no passivity within the audience whatsoever. A person may, for example, be too lazy to turn off their television and so consume any media that is available. This theory also pays little attention to the short term and long term effects of media on the audience.
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[edit] In justice
- Many famous trials about celebrities such as Roscoe Fatty Arbuckle and Michael Jackson have, whatever the outcome of the trials, ended in such bad publicity and negative depictions of the people involved that their reputation was damaged sincerely forever. The general public had already formed their opinion even before the trials were held. Even if the celebrity remained out of jail or was proven not guilty his career or popularity could have turned out for the worse due to this.
[edit] In politics
- Joseph McCarthy's hunt for communist infiltrations in the US was broadcast frequently on television and other media. Therefore influencing the negative attitude of Americans towards communism, without a neutral viewpoint.
- The election of many politicians since the 1960s, most notably John F. Kennedy in the US have been influenced enormously by media exposure, such as television. Kennedy's victory in the presidential race of 1960 against Richard Nixon has been described as the result of his more handsome and good looking appearance on television, especially when compared with Nixon.
Also Ronald Reagan and Arnold Schwarzenegger whose fame as actors helped them to gain more media attention and eventually the victory in their elections as governor or president. This trend however, can be seen internationally.
[edit] In music
- On August 9, 1969 Charles Manson and his cult killed several people, inspired by songs of The Beatles (Piggies, Helter Skelter). This was not the first time the negative influence of rock 'n roll was discussed, but it was the first serious case.
- In 1980 former Beatle John Lennon was shot. His killer, Mark David Chapman was inspired by Lennon's music and the book The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger.
- In the eighties criticism of rock and especially heavy metal increased. Several cases where fans of metal, gothic or other extreme rock committed murder or suicide were held up by Christian and other pressure groups to censor these acts or their music.
In 1985 hearings of this case started and several pop artists came to prevent censorship of the PMRC. It was pointed out that many of these cases were marginal deeds and that the numerous normal fans of this music proved that listening to metal or other sorts of music with controversial topics didn't necessarily lead to copycat behaviour. Also by preventing children of hearing this music adult listeners were prevented of hearing these songs and albums too. One of the rock musicians who spoke against government censorship in the music industry was Frank Zappa who stated that according to the theories about the media influence on people one might say that "everyone who ever listened to The Beatles or The Beach Boys is a potential murderer, because those were the favourite groups of Charles Manson. Most songs are about love, so if people were really influenced by music: we would all love each other." In the end the Parental Advisory stickers were established.
- When Nirvana singer Kurt Cobain committed suicide in 1994 this resulted in several copy cat suicides by fans, which again raised the question if certain rock music should be prevented from release.
[edit] In film
- Stanley Kubrick's film A Clockwork Orange (1971) caused controversy on its release due to the violent content of fights, rape and murder which are presented through the eyes of the gangs who commit them. The controversy about the film increased when some gangs and youths started to copycat the violence and rape. Kubrick then withdrew the film from syndication in England until his death.
"A Clockwork Orange" tells the story of how Alex is cured of his violent behaviour by aversion therapy. Alex is given a nausea inducing drug and is then forced to watch video footage of violent behaviors. After successive pairings Alex becomes physically ill when presented with such stimuli and so avoids these behaviors all together.
- In 1981 president Ronald Reagan was shot by John Hinckley Jr.. The president survived and Hinckley was arrested. Just like Lennon's killer Mark David Chapman he had J.D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the Rye" with him. Hinckley claimed to have committed his crime to impress actress Jodie Foster, like he had seen in the movie Taxi Driver by Martin Scorsese.
- On August 19, 1987 a man who dressed himself up as Rambo shot 16 people and wounded 15 others in the British village Hungerford. Afterwards he committed suicide. Although later investigations concluded that he had never seen the film, he did have a collection of other violent movies, which may have inspired him in the killings.
(See Hungerford massacre)
