Post-Soviet states

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The Post-Soviet states, also commonly known as former Soviet republics, are the independent nations that split off from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in its breakup in 1991.

Contents 1 States and geographical groupings 2 Economy 3 Regional organizations 3.1 Exclusively post-Soviet membership 3.1.1 Commonwealth of Independent States 3.1.2 GUAM 3.1.3 Collective Security Treaty Organization 3.1.4 Eurasian Economic Community 3.1.5 Central Asian Cooperation Organization 3.1.6 Union of Russia and Belarus 3.2 Primarily post-Soviet membership 3.2.1 Economic Cooperation Organization 3.2.2 Community of Democratic Choice 3.2.3 Shanghai Cooperation Organization 3.3 Other regional organizations 4 Political problems 4.1 Separatist conflicts 4.2 Civil wars 4.3 Color revolutions 4.4 Russian population problems 5 See also 6 External links

[edit] States and geographical groupings

The post-Soviet states are typically divided into the following five groupings. Each of these regions has its own common set of traits, owing not only to geographic and cultural factors but also to that region's history in relation to Russia.

• Baltic states:
  •  Estonia
  •  Latvia
  •  Lithuania

• Central Asia:
  •  Kazakhstan
  •  Kyrgyzstan
  •  Tajikistan
  •  Turkmenistan
  •  Uzbekistan

• Transcaucasia:
  •  Armenia
  •  Azerbaijan
  •  Georgia

• Eastern European states:
  •  Belarus
  •  Moldova
  •  Ukraine

• Russia:
  •  Russia

Russia, because of its uniquely dominant role in the region, is generally treated as a category unto itself.

In addition, there are a number of de-facto independent, but internationally unrecognized states, see below.

The Eastern European states had their history intermingled with Russia from its earliest existence as a state, while Central Asia and the Transcaucasus were not conquered by it until the 18th or 19th century.

The Baltic countries were ruled by the Teutonic Order, Denmark, Poland and Sweden for significant periods in their history before being incorporated into Imperial Russia in the 18th century and becoming independent nations after World War I. Their annexation by the Soviet Union in 1940 was not recognized by Western states, see, e.g., Stimson Doctrine for the position of the USA.

[edit] Economy

See also: Economy of Russia

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the former Soviet republics adopted capitalism as their new economic system. The gross domestic product in all former Soviet republics (excluding the Baltic states) immediately went down, totaling only 40 percent of its 1991 volume. Inflation was also rampant. By 2004, only the Baltic states, Armenia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan had reached higher gross domestic products greater than the ones they had in 1991. In Russia itself, the perceived failure of capitalism to improve lifestyle culminated in the 1998 Russian economic crisis, which was followed by a return to more interventionist economic policies by the government.

The reasons for capitalism's apparent failure in the post-Soviet states has been a subject of debate. Poor or limited transportation and communications infrastructure, untested legal systems and weak property rights protection, political instability (except for the Baltic states), and dense bureaucracy are all cited^{[citation needed]}. A key factor is corruption, including poorly managed privatization of state-owned enterprises, which are now controlled by former Soviet apparatchiks or opportunist "oligarchs." Popular opposition to capitalism is also noted, with many of the people who lived their entire lives in communism holding a so-called homo sovieticus mentality^{[citation needed]}. Finally, the free market neoliberalism implemented in most former Soviet republics is called into question and accused of being a flawed economic model. In the West, the strategy of a "shock to the system" that was deliberately advocated by the U.S. is considered now to have had a downside.

[edit] Regional organizations

A number of international organizations and cooperating blocs have sprung up in the region since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The countries are divided in their participation to these blocs:

• The three Baltic states have not sought membership to any of these post-Soviet organizations, seeking and achieving membership in the European Union and NATO instead (only their electricity and rail systems remain closely connected with former soviet organisations). The sole exception to the above has been their recent membership in the Community of Democratic Choice.

• Turkmenistan, besides its membership in the Economic Cooperation Organization and its observer status in the CIS (it withdrew as a full member in 2005), has not sought closer integration in any of the other Western or post-Soviet organizations.

• Armenia besides CIS participates in CSTO only.

• Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia and Azerbaijan do participate in the CIS but other than that (same as the Baltic states) they mostly participate in regional organizations that don't involve Russia: Such organizations are GUAM and the Community of Democratic Choice.

• On the other hand, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan participate in several organizations that have Russia as a primary mover. Such organizations are the EurAsEc (merged with CACO), CSTO, and the SCO.

The last two groups only became distinct once Uzbekistan withdrew from GUAM and sought membership in EurAsEc and CSTO.

In this section those organizations are mentioned which are mainly (or completely) composed of post-Soviet states. Organizations with much wider memberships are not discussed.

[edit] Exclusively post-Soviet membership

[edit] Commonwealth of Independent States

The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) consists of 11 of the 15 former Soviet Republics - the 4 exceptions are the Baltics and Turkmenistan. It has been said to have been created to "allow a civilized divorce" between the republics, but its members have since signed a number of documents promoting closer cooperation instead. Turkmenistan is the only former Soviet state that was a member of CIS but eventually withdrew.

[edit] GUAM

Four member states, namely Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova established the GUAM group that was largely seen as intending to counter Russian dominance in the region. Notably, these four nations don't participate in any of the other regional organizations that sprang up in the region since the dissolution of the Soviet Union (other than the CIS).

[edit] Collective Security Treaty Organization

Seven CIS member states, namely Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Armenia, have enhanced their military cooperation, establishing the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), this being an expansion of the previous Collective Security Treaty (CST). Uzbekistan which (alongside Georgia and Azerbaijan) withdrew from the CST in 1999, joined GUAM. Then in 2005 it withdrew from GUAM and currently it is again seeking closer ties with Russia (thus in 2006 it has joined EurAsEc and later CSTO). CSTO and EurAsEc are closely related organizations.

[edit] Eurasian Economic Community

The Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC) was established by Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, having grown out of the CIS Customs Union. Ukraine and Moldova have observer status in the community, however Ukraine has declared its desire not to become a full member state. Because having common borders with the rest of the community is a prerequisite for full membership, Moldova is thus barred from seeking it. Uzbekistan applied for membership in October 2005[1], when the process of merging CACO and the Eurasian Economic Community began; it joined on 25 January 2006.

[edit] Central Asian Cooperation Organization

The Central Asian Cooperation Organization (CACO) was first initiated by all five Central Asian nations in 1991 as the Central Asian Commonwealth. Later Turkmenistan followed a policy of isolation, withdrawing from participation in all regional forums. Tajikistan joined in 1998 while Russia joined the (now renamed) CACO in 2004. In the end of 2005 it was decided between the member states that Uzbekistan will join the Eurasian Economic Community and that both organizations will merge.

[edit] Union of Russia and Belarus

The Union of Russia and Belarus was originally formed on April 2, 1996 under the name "Community of Russia and Belarus", before being tightened further on April 3, 1997. It was initiated by the president of Belarus, Alexander Lukashenko.

On paper, the Union of Russia and Belarus intends further integration, beyond the scope of mere cooperation, including the introduction of the ruble as a common currency.

[edit] Primarily post-Soviet membership

[edit] Economic Cooperation Organization

The Economic Cooperation Organization was originally formed in 1985 by Turkey, Iran and Pakistan but in 1992 the organization was expanded to include Afghanistan and the six primarily Muslim former Soviet Republics: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

[edit] Community of Democratic Choice

The Community of Democratic Choice (CDC) was formed in December 2005 at the primary instigation of Ukraine and Georgia, and composed of six post-Soviet states (Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, and the three Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and three other countries of Eastern Europe (Slovenia, Romania and the Republic of Macedonia). The Black Sea Forum (BSF) is a closely related organization.

Just like GUAM before it, this forum is largely seen as intending to counteract Russian influence in the area. This is the only international forum centered in the post-Soviet space in which the Baltic states also participate. In addition, the other three post-Soviet states in it are all members of GUAM.

[edit] Shanghai Cooperation Organization

The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), is composed of China and five post-Soviet states, namely Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The organization was founded in 2001, though its predecessor, the Shanghai Five grouping, has existed since 1996. Its aims revolve around security-related issues.

[edit] Other regional organizations

Post-soviet states are also members in the following organizations in Balkans and Black Sea regions:

• Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) with Moldova
• Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe (SP for SEE) with Moldova
• Southeast European Cooperation Process (SEECP) with Moldova
• Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) with Moldova
• Central European Initiative (CEI) with Moldova, Ukraine and Belarus
• Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue (BSF) with Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova and Armenia
• Black Sea Economic Co-operation (BSEC) with Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova and Armenia

[edit] Political problems

Regarding political freedom in the former Soviet republics, Freedom House's 2006 report listed the following:

• Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Ukraine as "free" countries

  In Freedom House's listing for 2005, Ukraine was listed as "partly free."

• Armenia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and Moldova were listed as "partly free"

• Russia, Belarus, Azerbaijan and four Central Asian nations (Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan) were listed as "not free"—while Turkmenistan in particular received the worst freedom ratings possible and was listed as one of the eight most repressive regimes in the year.

Similarly, the Worldwide Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders, recorded the following as regards press freedom:

• A good situation in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania
• Noticeable problems in Armenia, Georgia, Moldova and Tajikistan
• A difficult situation in Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Ukraine and Uzbekistan
• A very serious situation in Turkmenistan

Statistics for the 2006 State of World Liberty rank the former Soviet republics as follows (out of a list from 1 to 159): [2]

Rank	Former Soviet Republic	Final Weighted Average	Economic Freedom Average	Economic Freedom Rank	Government and Tax Average	Government and Tax Rank	Individual Freedom Average	Individual Freedom Rank
1	Estonia	85.25	79.63	8	76.26	6	99.86	5
16	Lithuania	77.49	69.75	25	63.13	28	99.59	9
20	Latvia	76.55	66.13	33	63.77	26	99.77	7
58	Georgia	65.27	57.25	55	70.88	12	67.69	62
79	Armenia	59.46	68.50	30	68.75	14	45.11	90
87	Ukraine	57.72	49.50	80	49.16	104	74.52	50
93	Moldova	55.10	47.50	87	58.26	54	60.89	75
106	Kyrgyzstan	50.12	50.25	77	59.62	48	44.56	92
124	Russia	42.07	44.25	97	53.92	75	28.03	112
132	Kazakhstan	38.77	41.25	106	51.21	91	29.18	109
137	Azerbaijan	35.48	37.25	109	45.79	123	27.82	113
141	Tajikistan	34.79	31.00	116	50.73	95	29.47	108
152	Uzbekistan	22.39	27.25	118	46.22	116	3.90	134
153	Belarus	21.69	22.25	123	37.86	147	11.87	128
154	Turkmenistan	21.07	24.00	120	50.34	96	1.42	138

It has been remarked that several post-Soviet states have not changed leadership since their independence, such as Islom Karimov in Uzbekistan and Nursultan Nazarbayev in Kazakhstan. All of these had originally more limited terms but through decrees or referenda prolonged their stay in office (a practice also followed by President Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus). Askar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan had likewise served as President since its independence until he was forced to resign as a result of the Kyrgyz revolution of 2005. Saparmurat Niyazov in Turkmenistan ruled from independence until his death in 2006, creating a personality cult around himself.

The issue of dynastical succession has been another element affecting the politics of some post-Soviet States, with Ilham Aliyev becoming President of Azerbaijan after the death of his father Heydar Aliyev, and theories about the children of other leaders in Central Asia also being groomed for succession. [3] The participation of Akayev's son and daughter in the 2005 Kyrgyz parliamentary elections boosted fears of dynastic succession being used in Kyrgyzstan as well, and may have contributed to the anti-Akayev climate that led to his overthrow.

Repression in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Belarus and several other post-Soviet republics is preventing democracy from spreading further in many of those countries. As Russia asserts its dominance over its neighbours, backing autocrats and ignoring crackdowns on human-rights activists, it is also unlikely that outsiders will intervene to improve matters.[4]

[edit] Separatist conflicts

Most military conflicts in the post-Soviet space have had to do with the separatist desires of territories with different ethnic or religious demographics than the majority of the state they're officially recognized as part of.

Conflicts in the former Soviet Union
Nagorno-Karabakh – South Ossetia – Abkhazia – Georgia – North Ossetia – Transnistria – Tajikistan – 1st Chechnya – Dagestan – 2nd Chechnya

Such territories and resulting military conflicts have so far been:

• Chechnya and Dagestan, separatist guerilla has been seeking independence from Russia
• Transnistria, de-facto independent from Moldova
• Abkhazia and South Ossetia, de-facto independent from Georgia, and Adjara has been seeking higher level of autonomy.
• Nagorno-Karabakh, de-facto independent from Azerbaijan and Talysh-Mughan Autonomous Republic (Talyshstan) has been seeking higher level of autonomy.

Out of these regions, only two have been fully reincorporated into their respective countries. Adjara was reincorporated into Georgia and the conflict there has ended peacefully. Separatist leader Aslan Abashidze fled to Russia where he was granted asylum. The Talysh-Mughan Autonomous Republic was swiftly suppressed with the rise of Heydər Əliyev. Its leader Colonel Alakram Alekper Gumbatov was arrested. The region is now integrated in Azerbaijan, but divided up into separate rayons and has no autonomy.

Chechnya has been involved in two wars, caused by the separatist forces' desire to make it independent from Russia, and conflict between the separatists and the federalists still continues. Currently, Chechnya's official position is as a republic that is part of the Russian Federation. At the same time there still exists a self-proclaimed separatist government not recognized by any state.

There is a separatist movement within Dagestan, members of which fought on the side of the Chechen rebels during the raid of September, 1999. However, that attack was quickly repelled by the Russian Armed Forces with the help of some locals who considered the Chechen attack an invasion rather than a liberation.

Transnistria, Abkhazia and South Ossetia on the other hand, have achieved de facto independence which is however unrecognized by any other country in the world — a Russian military presence exists in all three of these territories. Nagorno-Karabakh has likewise achieved a de facto independence, with Armenian troops having control of all the territory and even of neighboring parts of Azerbaijan. Since 1994 these four regions have made an agreement of mutual assistance, and their leaders have in several occasions reiterated such pledges. [5][6] [7]

The separtist conflicts are sometimes called "Frozen conflicts" since mass bloodshed has subsided, but sentiments and opinions continue to be passed down to new generations.

[edit] Civil wars

Civil wars unrelated to separatist movements have occurred twice in the region:

• The Georgian Civil War between the forces of Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Eduard Shevardnadze. The war ended after Russian forces intervened in support of Shevardnadze's government, which in turn agreed to join the Commonwealth of Independent States.
• The Tajikistan Civil War that lasted between 1992 and 1997.

[edit] Color revolutions

Since 2003, a number of (largely) peaceful "color revolutions" have happened in some post-Soviet states after disputed elections, with popular protests bringing into power the former opposition.

• The Rose Revolution in Georgia, leading to the fall from office of Eduard Shevardnadze.
• The Orange Revolution in Ukraine, bringing into power Viktor Yushchenko.
• The Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, leading to the resignation of Askar Akayev.

[edit] Russian population problems

There is significant Russophone population in most of post-Soviet states, whose political position as an ethnic minority varies from full recognition of their rights to serious conflicts in states where Russians are now seen as former occupants.

• Russians in Kazakhstan
• Russians in Latvia
• History of Russians in Estonia
• History of Russians in Lithuania

[edit] See also

• Russophone (Russian-speaking countries and/or territories)
• Eastern bloc
• Sovietization
• Russification
• Russophobia

[edit] External links

• Candid photos of the Eastern Bloc September-December 1991, in the last months of the USSR
• Discovering The Centuries-Old State Tradition, professor Pål Kolstø, University of Oslo
• Former Soviet war zones |The hazards of a long, hard freeze, The Economist, August 19, 2004
• 4 enclaves' post-Soviet fate in limbo, The Seattle Times, August 20, 2006
• Are Independence Referendums First Step Toward Kremlin's 'Historical Revanchism'?, Radio Free Europe, September 15, 2006