Sexual objectification

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Sexual objectification is objectification of a person. That is, seeing them as a sexual object, and emphasizing their sexual attributes and physical attractiveness, while de-emphasizing their existence as a living person with emotions and feelings of their own. The concept of sexual objectification and, in particular, the objectification of women, is an important idea in feminist theory and psychological theories derived from feminism.

[edit] Objectification of women

Many feminists (as well as some non-feminists) view the sexual objectification of women as one of the main ways in which women are subordinated in a sexist society. In their view, the objectification of women involves disregarding personal abilities and capabilities, and focusing instead on attributes relevant to women's role as sexual partners, such as physical attractiveness, sex appeal, and submissiveness.

Examples seen by some as objectifying women include depictions of women in advertising and media, images of women in pornography, as well as more mainstream media and art, strip clubs and prostitution, men evaluating women sexually in public spaces, and cosmetic surgery, particularly breast enlargement.

Historically, women have often been valued for their physical attributes. Some feminists and psychologists argue that such sexual objectification can lead to negative psychological effects include depression and hopelessness, and can give women negative self-images due to the belief that their intelligence and competence are not being acknowledged. ^[1][2]. The precise degree to how objectification has affected women and society in general is a topic of academic debate. Such claims include:

• Girls' understanding of the importance of appearance in society may contribute to feelings of fear, shame, and disgust that some experience during the transition from girlhood to womanhood because they sense that they are becoming more visible to society as sexual objects (Lee, 1994).
• Young women are especially susceptible to objectification, as they are often taught that power, respect, and wealth can be derived from one's outwardly appearance (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
• According to Anne Koedt, women have been defined sexually in terms of what pleases men.^[3].

Pro-feminist cultural critics such as Robert Jensen and Sut Jhally accuse mass media and advertizing of promoting the objectification of women to help promote goods and services.

[edit] Celebrity objectification

Many actors and famous people are considered sex objects or "sex symbols" (such as Pamela Anderson, Tom Cruise, Brad Pitt and Halle Berry). This new reality does not conform to either the values of traditional conservative gender roles or historical feminist analysis.

Marilyn Monroe might be considered an archetype of popular culture figures, although some analysts consider Clara Bow the true first "It" girl. ("It" being "sex") ^[4]

[edit] Objectification of men

Feminist authors Christina Hoff Sommers and Naomi Wolf have noted that women's sexual liberation has led some women to make men into sex objects. Other authors have held that in gay male culture there is a great deal of objectification of men (including self-objectification). Research has suggested that the psychological effects of objectification on men are similar to those of women, leading to negative body image among men, as well as fears of inadequate sexual performance, leading to increased use of drugs like Viagra.

Examples of the increasing trend of the objectification of men in contemporary media include increasing exposure of the male body in movies, television, advertising, and women's magazines; the popularity of male striptease performances; advertisements for drugs to increase penis size or improve sexual performance; and increasingly prominent media portrayals of men with unrealistic body types (e.g., hairlessness, perfectly toned muscles, an absence of blemishes or body fat, etc.) on billboards, in calendars, in magazine advertisements, etc.

[edit] Views on sexual objectification

While the concept of sexual objectification is important within feminist theory, ideas on what constitutes objectification and what the ethical implications of objectification are vary widely. Some feminists such as Naomi Wolf (1992) find the concept of physical attractiveness itself to be problematic, with some radical feminists being opposed to any evaluation of another person's sexual attractiveness based on physical characteristics. John Stoltenberg (1989) goes so far as to condemn any sexual fantasy that involves visualization of a woman as wrongfully objectifying.

Radical feminists view objectification as playing a central role in reducing women to what they refer to as the "sex class". While radical feminists view all mass media in a patriarchal society to be objectifying, they most often focus on pornography as playing an egregious role in habituating men to objectify women.

Other feminists, particularly those identified with sex-positive feminism, take a more nuanced view of sexual objectification, seeing sexual objectification as mainly a problem when not counterbalanced by women's sense of their own sexual subjectivity. Sex-positive feminist activism therefore emphasizes developing greater sexual subjectivity in women, rather than attacking sexual objectification.

Some social conservatives such as Wendy Shalit have taken up aspects of the feminist critique of sexual objectification. In their view, however, sexual objectification is one of the negative legacies of the sexual revolution. These critics advocate a return of Victorian values as the antidote to sexual objectification.

Many critics of feminism contest feminist claims about the objectification of women. Camille Paglia holds that "Turning people into sex objects is one of the specialties of our species."^[5] In her view, objectification is closely tied to (and may even be identical with) the highest human faculties toward conceptualization and aesthetics.

A related concept often used by postmodernist feminist theorists, is that of gaze.

[edit] Objectification as a sexual fetish

Sexual objectification also describes a specific sexual fetish involving the act of treating a person as an object for erotic purposes. This may provide erotic humiliation for the person so regarded. As with most BDSM-related activities, it is not considered abusive when engaged in consensually. Allen Jones' Hat Stand and Table Sculpture, which show semi-naked women in the roles of furniture, are clear examples of the depiction of the fantasy of sexual objectification.

[edit] See also

• Sexualization

[edit] References

1. ^ Hewstone, Miles; Marilynn B. Brewer (2004-01-01). Self and Social Identity. Blackwell Publishing Professional, 167. ISBN 978-1-4051-1069-3 ISBN 1-4051-1069-4. 
2. ^ Fredrickson, B.L.; T. Roberts. "Objectification Theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks". Psychology of Women Quarterly 21: 172-206. 
3. ^ McCann (Editor), Carole R.; Seung-Kyung Kim (Editor) (November 2002). Feminist Theory Reader: Local and Global Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-4159-3153-3 ISBN 0-4159-3153-3. 
4. ^ Marilyn Monroe, Courtney Love, Clara Bow. Clara Bow: Discovering It Girl [DVD]. ASIN: B00000JGEV: Timeline Films, UCLA Film and Television Archive.
5. ^ Paglia, Camille (August 20, 1991). Sexual Personae: Art & Decadence from Nefertiti to Emily Dickinson. Vintage. ISBN 0-6797-3579-8 ISBN 978-0-6797-3579-3. 

• American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. ISBN 0890420246 (hardcover) ISBN 0890420254 (paperback)
• Lee J. (1994). Menarche and the (hetero)sexualization of the female body. Gender and Society 8:343–362.
• Stoltenberg, John. 1989. Refusing to be a man: Essays on sex and justice. Portland, OR: Breitenbush Books. (Reprinted, 2000. Oxford: Routledge) ISBN 1841420417
• Wolf, Naomi. (1992). The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women. New York: William Morrow and Co. (Reprinted, 2002. New York: Harper Perennial) ISBN 0060512180

[edit] External links

• "Objectification", Fetch my Axe, June 5, 2006.
• "Women Like Seeing Men as Sex Objects". Interview with Janet Anderson by Petronella Wyatt, Daily Telegraph, October 5, 1996.