波兰犹太人历史

维基百科，自由的百科全书

波兰犹太人的历史历时长达一个千禧年，既经历过漫长的宗教宽容时期，该国的犹太人群体繁荣昌盛；也在20世纪纳粹德国占领波兰期间，经历了犹太人大屠杀，整个群体几乎遭受了彻底的种族灭绝 。自从10世纪波兰王国创建，以及1569年成立波兰立陶宛联邦以来，波兰是欧洲最宽容的国家之一。它拥有世界最大、最活跃的犹太人群体之一。波兰立陶宛联邦由于外部侵略和内部文化变迁而衰落下来，新教宗教改革和天主教反宗教改革，波兰宽容的传统开始 to wane 从17世纪 onward.因此，困境 of 联邦’s Jewry worsened, 下降到18世纪末其他欧洲国家的水平。 1795年瓜分波兰以后，波兰作为一个主权国家灭亡了，瓜分波兰的列强。波兰犹太人遭受 to 法律 of the partitioning powers，首先是increasingly 反犹太主义 俄国, but also 奥匈帝国和普鲁士/德国。Addiitionally,许多波兰犹太人支持共产主义 which further polarized them as a group 反对俄国和奥匈帝国统治，and cast them as 俄国布尔什维克革命的支持者。而且，由于波兰在20世纪赢得独立，第二次世界大战前夕，波兰拥有活跃的犹太人群体，超过300万人，one of 世界最多, though 反犹太主义，both 政治 and from 总人口, was a growing problem^[1]。超过90%的波兰犹太人被纳粹德国杀害在 犹太人大屠杀（Holocaust）期间, though, with a few tragic exceptions,如Jedwabne pogrom,波兰人不合作 in 犹太人群体毁灭, and many保护他们的犹太人邻居。在战后时期, many of 180,000–240,000 幸存者 chose to emigrate 从共产党 波兰人民共和国 to 初生的以色列。剩余的大部分犹太人在1960年代末离开波兰 as the result of 国家发起反犹太主义anti-Zionist campaign。1989年，After the fall of 共产党政权 in Poland ，共产党政权在波兰，波兰犹太人的处境已经正常化了。今天在波兰，反犹太主义的水平可与其它欧洲国家诸如意大利、西班牙和德国相比。当代的波兰犹太人community is 估计有大约8,000 to 12,000 members, 尽管犹太人的实际数字，including those who are not actively connected to 犹太教或犹太文化, may be several times larger.

本文屬於犹太系列的一部分
猶太先祖
亞伯拉罕、以撒、雅各、約瑟、摩西、大衛、所羅門
犹太历史
十二支派、以色列历史、以色列王國、北國以色列、南國猶大
犹太教重要典籍與文獻
十诫、塔納赫、塔木德、米德拉什、密西拿、革馬拉
犹太教節日
猶太曆、五旬節、逾越節、安息日、住棚節、贖罪節、普珥節
犹太教派
正统派、保守派、改革派、重造派
犹太圣地
耶路撒冷、马萨达
建築
聖殿、猶太會堂
重要事件
犹太人大屠杀
知名猶太人
猶太人與中國
猶太人在中國、開封猶太人、雙槍柯恩

[编辑] 从早期历史到黄金时代: 966–1572

主条目：中世纪犹太人

关于此话题更进一步的细节，參見波兰犹太人历史 (966-1572)。

[编辑] 早期历史: 966–1385

主条目：波兰历史 (966-1385)

10世纪，第一名犹太人抵达今波兰境内，沿着贸易路线向东旅行，直到基辅和布哈拉，犹太商人还穿越了西里西亚地区。其中一名外交官、商人 from the Moorish town of Tortosa in 伊比利亚半岛, known under his 阿拉伯名字 of Ibrahim ibn Jakub, was the first chronicler to mention the Polish state under the rule of prince Mieszko I. The first actual mention of Jews in Polish chronicles occurs in 11世纪。It appears 犹太人 were then living in 格涅兹诺, at that time capital of 波兰王国 of Piast王朝. The first permanent Jewish community is mentioned in 1085 by a Jewish scholar Jehuda ha-Kohen in the city of Przemyśl (nevertheless it was Ruthenian town in this time).

While Jews (identifiable by their distinctive hats in this 1250 French Bible illustration) were being killed by 十字军在德国，Bolesław III邀请他们 to the safety of Poland.

第一批从西欧到波兰大批犹太移民发生在1098年第一次十字军期间。

[编辑] The early Jagiellon era: 1385–1505

主条目：History of Poland (1385-1569)

As a result of the marriage of Wladislaus II to Jadwiga, daughter of Louis I of Hungary, Lithuania was united with the kingdom of Poland. Although, in 1388, rights were extended to Lithuanian Jews as well, it was under the rule of Wladislaus II and those of his successors that the first extensive persecutions of the Jews in Poland commenced, and the king did not act to stop these events. There were a number of blood libels and riots against the Jews, and official persecution gradually increased, especially as the clergy pushed for less tolerance.

Kazimierz IV Jagiellończyk confirmed and extended Jewish charters in the second half of 15世纪

[编辑] 犹太人世界的中心: 1505–72

[编辑] 波兰—立陶宛联邦: 1572–1795

主条目：波兰历史 (1572-1795)

关于此话题更进一步的细节，參見波兰犹太人历史 (1572-1795)。

[编辑] 华沙同盟

Following the childless death of Zygmund II，雅盖隆王朝的末代国王，波兰和立陶宛贵族(szlachta) gathered at 华沙 in 1573 and signed a document in which representatives of all 主要宗教 pledged each other mutual support and tolerance.

See: 华沙同盟.

[编辑] Increasing isolation

Following Sigismund, Stephen Bathory (1576–1586) was elected King of 波兰；and he proved both a tolerant ruler and a friend of the Jews, but the populace in general was becoming increasingly anti-Semitic. Political and economic events in the course of the sixteenth century forced the Jews to establish a more compact communal organization, becoming sufficiently isolated from their Christian neighbors to be regarded as strangers. They resided in 城镇，but had little to do with municipal administration, their own affairs being managed by the rabbis, the elders, and the dayyanim or religious judges. Conflicts and disputes, however, became of frequent occurrence, and led to the convocation of periodical rabbinical congresses, which were the nucleus of the central institution known in Poland, from the middle of the sixteenth to the middle of the eighteenth century, as the Council of Four Lands. Under Sigismund III Vasa (1587–1632) and his son, Wladislaus IV Vasa (1632–1648), the position of the Jews was gradually reduced as blood libel accusations increased.

[编辑] 哥萨克起义与洪水

1648年，联邦was devastated by several conflicts, in which 联邦 丧失了超过三分之一的人口 (over 300万人), and Jewish losses were counted in hundreds of thousands. First, the Chmielnicki Uprising when Bohdan Khmelnytsky's Cossacks massacred 数万犹太人和波兰人 in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (今乌克兰)。It is recorded that Chmielncki told the people that 波兰人 had sold them as slaves "into the hands of the accursed Jews". The precise number of dead may never be known,但在这一时期犹太人口减少 during is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases and jasyr（关押在奥斯曼帝国).

Then the incompetent politics of the elected kings of the House of Vasa brought the weakened state to its knees, as it was invaded by the Swedish Empire in what became known as The Deluge。The kingdom of Poland proper, which had hitherto suffered but little either from Chmielnicki 起义 or from the recurring 俄国和奥斯曼帝国的入侵，now became the scene of terrible disturbances (1655–1658)。Charles X of Sweden, at the head of his victorious army, overran Poland; and soon 整个国家，包括克拉科夫和华沙两大城市, was in his hands. The Jews of 大波兰和小波兰 found themselves torn between two sides: those of them who were spared by 瑞典 were attacked by the Poles, who accused them of aiding the enemy.波兰 general Stefan Czarniecki, in his flight from the Swedes, devastated the whole country through which he passed and treated the Jews without mercy. The Polish partisan detachments treated the non-Polish inhabitants with equal severity. Moreover, the horrors of the war were aggravated by 瘟疫, and the Jews and townsfolk of the districts of Kalisz, Kraków, 波兹南、Piotrków和卢布林 perished en masse by the sword of the besieging armies and the plague.

As soon as the disturbances had ceased, the Jews began to return and to rebuild their destroyed homes; and while it is true that 波兰的犹太人口 had decreased and become impoverished, it still was more numerous than that of the Jewish colonies in 西欧; and Poland remained as the spiritual center of 犹太教, and through 1698, the Polish kings generally remained supportive of the Jews, despite a hostile clergy and nobility. It also should be noted that while Jewish losses in those events were high, estimated by some historians to be close to 500,000,联邦损失了1/3的人口 — approximately 3 million of its citizens.

[编辑] Decline under 萨克森王朝

With the accession to the throne of the 萨克森王朝 the Jews completely 失去了政府的支持。szlachta and the townsfolk were increasingly hostile to the Jews, as 宗教宽容 that dominated the mentality of the previous generations of Commonwealth citizens was slowly forgotten. In their intolerance, the citizens of the Commonwealth now approached the "standards" that dominated most of the contemporary European countries, and many Jews felt betrayed by the country they once viewed as their haven。在波兹南、克拉科夫等大城市，quarrels 基督徒和犹太人居民之间的 were of frequent occurrence. Attacks on the Jews by students, the so-called Schüler-Gelauf, became everyday occurrences in the large cities, the police regarding such scholastic riots with indifference.

[编辑] 瓜分

Disorder and anarchy reigned supreme in Poland 在18世纪下半叶的波兰，from the accession to the throne of its last king, Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski (1764–1795)。1772, in the aftermath of the Confederation of Bar, the outlying provinces of Poland were divided among 三个邻国, 俄罗斯、奥地利和普鲁士. Jews were most numerous in the territories that fell to the lot of Austria and Russia.

The permanent council established at the instance of the Russian government (1773–1788) served as the highest administrative tribunal, and occupied itself with the elaboration of a plan that would make practicable the reorganization of Poland on a more rational basis. The progressive elements in Polish society recognized the urgency of popular education as the very first step toward reform. The famous Komisja Edukacji Narodowej ("Commission of National Education"), the first ministry of education in the world, was established in 1773 and founded numerous new schools and remodeled the old ones. One of the members of the commission, kanclerz Andrzej Zamoyski, along with others, demanded that the inviolability of their persons and property should be guaranteed and that religious toleration should be to a certain extent granted them; but he insisted that Jews living in the cities should be separated from the Christians, that those of them having no definite occupation should be banished from the kingdom, and that even those engaged in agriculture should not be allowed to possess land. On the other hand, some szlachta and intellectuals proposed a national system of government, of the civil and political equality of the Jews. This was the only example in modern Europe before 法国革命 of tolerance and broadmindedness in dealing with the Jewish question. But all these reforms were 太晚了:俄国军队迅速入侵波兰，普鲁士也立刻效法。

第二次瓜分波兰发生在1793年7月17日。Jews, in a Jewish regiment led by Berek Joselewicz, took part in the Kościuszko Uprising the following year, when the Poles tried to again achieve independence, but were brutally put down. Following the revolt, the third and final partition of Poland took place in 1795. The great bulk of the Jewish population was transferred to Russia, and thus became subjects of that empire, although in 19世纪上半叶 some semblance of a vastly smaller Polish state was preserved, especially in the form of Congress Poland (1815–1831).

[编辑] 波兰和Commonwealth犹太教的发展

文化 and intellectual output of 波兰the Jewish community in on Judaism as a whole. Some Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as Polania or Polin in 希伯来语, and as transliterated into Hebrew, these names for Poland were interpreted as "good omens" because Polania can be broken down into three 希伯来 words: po ("here"), lan ("dwells"), ya ("God"), and Polin into two words of: po ("here") lin ("[you should] dwell"). The "message" was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. During the time from the rule of Sigismund until the Nazi Holocaust, Poland would be at the center of Jewish religious life.

在16世纪上半叶

Israel ben Eliezer, founder of Hasidism.

[编辑] The rise of Hasidism

主条目：Hasidim

[编辑] 俄属波兰的犹太人 (1795–1918)

主条目：History of Poland (1795-1918)

关于此话题更进一步的细节，參見History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union。

Official Russian policy would eventually prove to be substantially harsher to the Jews than that under independent Polish rule. The lands that had once been Poland were to remain the home of many Jews, as, in 1772, Catherine II, the tzarina of Russia, instituted the Pale of Settlement, restricting Jews to the western parts of the empire, which would eventually include much of Poland, although it excluded some areas in which Jews had previously lived. By the late 1800s, over four million Jews would live in the Pale.

[编辑] Pogroms

The assassination prompted a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots, called pogroms, throughout 1881–1884. In the 1881 outbreak, pogroms were primarily limited to Russia, although in a riot in Warsaw twelve Jews were killed, many others were wounded, women were raped and over two million rubles worth of property was destroyed. The new czar, Alexander III, blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a series of harsh restrictions on Jewish movements. Pogroms continued in large numbers until 1884, with at least tacit government approval. They proved a turning point in the history of the Jews in Poland and throughout the world. The pogroms prompted a great flood of Jewish immigration to the United States, with almost two million Jews leaving the Pale by the late 1920s, and the pogroms set the stage for Zionism.

An even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out from 1903 to 1906, and at least some of the pogroms are believed to have been organized or supported by the Tsarist Russian secret police, the Okhranka. Some of the worst of these occurred on Polish territory, where the majority of Russian Jews lived then, and included the Białystok pogrom of 1906, in which up to a hundred Jews were killed and many more wounded.

A Bundist demonstration, 1917

[编辑] Haskalah and Halakha

主条目：Haskalah

The Jewish Enlightenment, Haskalah, began to take hold in Poland during the 1800s, stressing secular ideas and values. Champions of Haskalah, the Maskilim, pushed for assimilation and integration into Russian culture. At the same time, there was another school of Jewish thought that emphasized traditional study and a Jewish response to the ethical problems of anti-Semitism and persecution, one form of which was the Mussar movement. Polish Jews generally were less influenced by Haskalah, rather focusing on a strong continuation of their religious lives based on Halakha ("Jewish law") following primarily Orthodox Judaism, Hasidic Judaism, and also adapting to the new Religious Zionism of the Mizrachi movement later in the 1800s.

[编辑] 波兰版图的政治

19世纪末，Haskalah and the debates it caused created a growing number of political movements within the Jewish community itself, covering a wide range of views and vying for votes in local and regional elections. Zionism became very popular with the advent of the Poale Zion socialist party as well as the religious Polish Mizrahi, and the increasingly popular General Zionists. Jews also took up socialism, forming the Bund labor union which supported assimilation and the rights of labor. The Folkspartei (People’s Party) advocated for its part cultural autonomy and resistance to assimilation. In 1912, Agudat Israel, a religious party, came into existence.

Unsurprisingly, given the conditions under Imperial Russia, the Jews participated in a number of Polish insurrections against the Russians, including the Kościuszko Insurrection (above), and the January Insurrection (1863) as well as the Revolutionary Movement of 1905.

[编辑] Interwar period 1918–39

主条目：History of Poland (1918-1939)

[编辑] 独立与波兰犹太人

Jews also played a role in the fight for independence in 1918, some joining Józef Piłsudski, while many other communities decided to remain neutral in the fight for a Polish state. In the wake of World War I and the ensuing conflicts that engulfed Eastern Europe — the Russian Civil War, Polish-Ukrainian War, and Polish-Soviet War — many pogroms were launched against the Jews by all sides. As a substantial number of Jews were perceived to have supported the Bolsheviks in Russia, they came under frequent attack by those opposed to the Bolshevik regime.

Just after the end of World War I, the West became alarmed by reports about alleged massive pogroms in Poland against Jews. Pressure for government action reached the point where President Woodrow Wilson sent an official commission to investigate the matter. The commission, led by Henry Morgenthau, Sr., announced that the reports of pogroms were exaggerated, and in some cases may even have been fabricated (Morgenthau Report). It identified eight major incidents in the years 1918–1919, and estimated the number of victims at 200–300 Jews. Four of these were attributed to the actions of deserters and undisciplined individual soldiers; none were blamed on official government policy. Among the incidents, in Pińsk a Polish officer accused a group of Jewish communists of plotting against the Poles and shot thirty-five of them. In Lviv (then Lwów) in 1918, after the Polish Army captured the city, hundreds of people were killed in the chaos, including some seventy-two Jews。在华沙，soldiers of Blue Army assaulted Jews in the streets, but were punished by military authorities. Many other events in Poland were later found to have been exaggerated, especially by contemporary newspapers such as 纽约时报, although serious abuses against the Jews, including pogroms, continued elsewhere, especially in 乌克兰^[2]. The result of the concern over the fate of Poland's Jews was a series of explicit clauses in the Versailles Treaty protecting the rights of minorities in Poland. In 1921, Poland's March Constitution gave the Jews the same legal rights as other citizens and guaranteed them religious tolerance.

[编辑] 犹太人与波兰文化

主条目：[[犹太文化、波兰文化|犹太文化、波兰文化]]

The newly independent Second Polish Republic had a large Jewish minority –当World War II开始时，波兰拥有欧洲最大 concentration of Jews。根据1931 National Census there were 3,130,581 Polish Jews measured by the declaration of their religion. Estimating the population increase and the emigration from Poland between 1931 and 1939, there were probably 3,474,000 Jews in Poland as of September 1, 1939 (approximately 10% of the total population). Jews were primarily centered in large and smaller cities: 77% lived in cities and 23% in the villages. During the school year of 1937–1938 there were 226 elementary schools and twelve high schools as well as fourteen vocational schools with either Yiddish or Hebrew as the instructional language. Jewish political parties, both the Socialist General Jewish Labor Union (The Bund), as well as parties of the Zionist right and left wing and religious conservative movements, were represented in the Sejm (the Polish Parliament) as well as in the regional councils.

The Jewish cultural scene was particularly vibrant. There were many Jewish publications and over 116 periodicals. Yiddish authors, most notably Isaac Bashevis Singer, went on to achieve international acclaim as classic Jewish writers, and in Singer's case, win the 1978 Nobel Prize. Other Jewish authors of the period, like Bruno Schulz, Julian Tuwim, Jan Brzechwa and Bolesław Leśmian were less well-known internationally, but made important contributions to Polish literature. Yiddish theatre also flourished; Poland had fifteen Yiddish theatres and theatrical groups. Warsaw was home to the most important Yiddish theater troupe of the time, the Vilna Troupe, which staged the first performance of The Dybbuk in 1920 at the Elyseum Theatre.

[编辑] Growing anti-Semitism

主条目：Anti-Semitism

Persecution of Jews in Poland was most visible during the early and latter years of the Second Republic. Jews were often not identified as true Poles; a problem caused by both Polish nationalism, supported by the Endecja government, and the fact that a substantial proportion of Jews lived separate lives from the Polish majority: 85% of Polish Jews listed Yiddish or Hebrew as their native language, for example. The matters improved for a time under the rule of Józef Piłsudski (1926–1935), who opposed anti-Semitism. Piłsudski replaced Endecja's 'ethnic assimilation' with the 'state assimilation' policy: citizens were judged by their loyalty to the state, not by their nationality.^[1] The years 1926-1935 were favourably viewed by many Polish Jews, whose situation improved especially under the cabinet of Pilsudski’s appointee Kazimierz Bartel.^[2] However a combination of various reasons, including the Great Depression^[1], meant that the situation of Jewish was never too satisfactory, and it deteriorated again after Piłsudski's death, which many Jews regarded as a tragedy.[3]

Further academic harassment, anti-Jewish riots, and semi-official or unofficial quotas (Numerus clausus) introduced in 1937 in some universities halved the number of Jews in Polish universities between independence and the late 1930s. In 1937 the trade unions of Polish doctors and lawyers restricted their new members to Christian Poles while many government jobs continued to be unavailable to Jews during this entire period. This was accompanied by physical violence: in the years between 1935 and 1937 seventy-nine Jews were killed and 500 injured in anti-Jewish incidents ^[4]. Violence was also frequently aimed at Jewish stores and many of them were looted. At the same time, persistent economic boycotts and harassment including property-destroying riots, combined with the effects of the Great Depression that had been very severe on agricultural countries like Poland, reduced the standard of living of Polish Jews until it was among the worst among major Jewish communities in the world. The result was that at the eve of the Second World War, the Jewish community in Poland was large and vibrant internally, yet (with the exception of a few professionals) also substantially poorer and less integrated than the Jews in most of Western Europe.

[编辑] 二战和 destruction of Polish Jewry (1939–45)

主条目：History of Poland (1939-1945)

[编辑] The Polish September campaign

主条目：Polish September Campaign

During the Polish September Campaign of 1939, some 120,000 Polish citizens of Jewish descent took part in battles with the Germans and the Soviets as members of the Polish Armed Forces. It is estimated that during the entirety of World War II as many as 32,216 Jewish soldiers and officers died and 61,000 were taken prisoner by the Germans; the majority did not survive. The soldiers and non-commissioned officers who were released ultimately found themselves in the ghettos and labor camps and suffered the same fate as other Jewish civilians.

[编辑] 苏占波兰

主条目：Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union

In newly partitioned Poland, according to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, (according to 1931 census) 61.2% of Polish Jews found themselves under German occupation while 38.8% were in Soviet-occupied territory. Based on population migration from West to East during and after the Polish September Campaign the percentage of Jews in the Soviet-occupied areas was probably higher than that of the 1931 census. Among Polish officers killed by the NKVD in 1940 in the Katyń massacre there were 500–600 Jews.

From 1939 to 1941 between 100,000 and 300,000 Polish Jews were deported from Soviet-occupied Polish territory into the Soviet Union. Some of them, especially Polish Communists (e.g. Jakub Berman), moved voluntarily; however, most of them were forcibly deported to gulags. Small numbers of Polish Jews (about 6,000) were able to leave the Soviet Union in 1942 with the Władysław Anders army, among them the future Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin. During the Polish army's II Corps' stay in the British Mandate of Palestine, 67% (2,972) of the Jewish soldiers deserted, many to join the Irgun.

[编辑] 犹太人大屠杀（The Holocaust）: 德国占领下的波兰

主条目：[[犹太人大屠杀, Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany, and World War II atrocities in Poland|犹太人大屠杀, Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany, and World War II atrocities in Poland]]

波兰犹太人 community suffered the most in 犹太人大屠杀。大约600万波兰公民在战争期间 perished，其中一半(300万)是波兰犹太人(all but about 300,000–500,000 of the Jewish population) who were killed at the Nazi extermination camps of Auschwitz, Treblinka, Majdanek, Belzec, Sobibór, Chełmno or died of starvation in ghettos^[5]. Many Jews in what was then eastern Poland also fell victim to Nazi death squads called Einsatzgruppen, which massacred Jews, especially in 1941.

Some of these German-inspired massacres were carried out with help from, or even active participation by, Poles themselves: for example, the massacre in Jedwabne, in which between 300 (Institute of National Remembrance's Final Findings^[6]) and 1,600 Jews (Jan T. Gross) were tortured and beaten to death by part of Jedwabne's citizens. The full extent of Polish participation in the massacres of the Polish Jewish community remains a controversial subject, but the Polish Institute for National Remembrance identified twenty-two other towns that had pogroms similar to Jedwabne^[7]. The reasons for these massacres are still debated, but they included anti-Semitism, resentment over alleged cooperation with the Soviet invaders in the Polish-Soviet War and during the 1939 invasion of the Kresy regions, and simple greed for the possessions of the Jews.

The Germans also established a number of ghettos in which Jews were confined, and eventually killed. The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest, with 380,000 people and the Łódź Ghetto, the second largest, holding about 160,000. Other Polish cities with large Jewish ghettos included Białystok, Częstochowa, Kielce, Kraków, Lublin, Lwów, and Radom. The Warsaw Ghetto was established by the German Governor-General Hans Frank on October 16, 1940. At this time, the population of the ghetto was estimated to be about 380,000 people, about 30% of the population of Warsaw. However, the size of the Ghetto was about 2.4% of the size of Warsaw. The Germans then closed off the Warsaw Ghetto from the outside world on November 16 of that year, building a wall around it. During the next year and a half, Jews from smaller cities and villages were brought into the Warsaw Ghetto, while diseases (especially typhoid) and starvation kept the inhabitants at about the same number. Average food rations in 1941 for Jews in Warsaw were limited to 253 kcal and 669 kcal for Poles as opposed to 2,613 kcal for Germans. On July 22, 1942, the mass deportation of the Warsaw Ghetto inhabitants began; during the next 52天(until 1942年9月12日) about 300,000 people were transported by train to the Treblinka extermination camp. The deportations were carried out by fifty German SS soldiers, 200 soldiers of the Latvian Schutzmannschaften Battalions, 200 乌克兰警察, and 2,500 Jewish Ghetto Police. Employees of the Judenrat, including the Ghetto Police, along with their families and relatives, were given immunity from deportations in return for their cooperation. Additionally, in August of 1942, Jewish Ghetto policemen, under the threat of deportation themselves, were ordered to personally "deliver" five ghetto inhabitants to the Umschlagplatz train station. On January 18, 1943, some Ghetto inhabitants, including members of ŻOB (Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa, Jewish Combat Organisation), resisted, often with arms, German attempts for additional deportations to Treblinka. The final destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto came four months later after the crushing of this Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, one of a number of failed Ghetto uprisings. Some of the survivors of this uprising still held in camps at or near Warsaw were freed a year later during the larger Warsaw Uprising led by Polish resistance movement Armia Krajowa.

The fate of the Warsaw Ghetto was similar to that of the other ghettos in which Jews were concentrated. With the decision of Nazi Germany to begin the Final Solution, the destruction of the Jews of Europe, Aktion Reinhard began in 1942, with the opening of the extermination camps of Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka, followed by Auschwitz-Birkenau. The mass deportation of Jews from ghettos to these camps, such as happened at the Warsaw Ghetto, soon followed, and more than 1.7 million Jews were killed at the Aktion Reinhard camps by October 1943 alone.

Poland was the only occupied country during World War II where the Nazis formally imposed the death penalty for anybody found sheltering and helping Jews. Also because the food rations for Poles were very small (669 kcal per day in 1941) and black market prices of food were high it was technically diffucult to hide members of the Jewish poulation by Poles and it was almost impossible to hide entire Jewish families. Despite these draconian measures by the Nazis, Poland has the highest amount of Righteous Among The Nations awards at the Yad Vashem Museum.

波兰流亡政府 was also the first (in November 1942) to reveal the existence of Nazi-run concentration camps and the systematic extermination of the Jews by the Nazis, through its courier Jan Karski and through the activities of Witold Pilecki, member of Armia Krajowa and the only person who volunteered for imprisonment in Auschwitz and organized a resistance movement inside the camp itself^[8]. The Polish government in exile was also the only government to set up an organization (Żegota) specifically aimed at helping the Jews in Poland.

[编辑] 共产党统治: 1945–89

主条目：History of Poland (1945-1989)

[编辑] 战后

Between 40,000 and 100,000 波兰犹太人幸存下来 Holocaust in Poland by hiding or by joining the Polish or Soviet partisan units. Another 50,000–170,000 were repatriated 从苏联 and 20,000–40,000 from Germany and other countries. At its postwar peak, there were 180,000–240,000 Jews in Poland settled mostly in 华沙、罗兹、克拉科夫和弗罗茨瓦夫.

第二次世界大战结束后不久，犹太人开始flee Poland.

[编辑] 1967–1989

In 1967, following the 六日战争 between 以色列和 阿拉伯国家, Poland broke off diplomatic relations with 以色列. However, since the Arabs were seen as 苏联 卫星国s, many Poles cheered the Israelis. By 1968 most of Poland's 40,000 remaining Jews were assimilated into Polish society, but over the next year they became the center of a centrally organized campaign, equating Jewish origins with Zionist sympathies and thus disloyalty to Poland.

Signs, March 1968: "Anti-Semitism: no, Anti-Zionism: yes"; "Zionists — go to Moshe Dayan!"; "Students, don't let yourselves be provoked!"

[编辑] 1989年以后

主条目：History of Poland (1989-present)

共产党在波兰下台以后，犹太人的文化、社会和宗教生活 has been undergoing a revival. 许多历史 issues, especially related to World War II and the 1944–89 period, suppressed by Communist censorship have been re-evaluated and publicly discussed (like the Massacre in Jedwabne, the Koniuchy Massacre, the Kielce pogrom, the Auschwitz cross, and Polish-Jewish wartime relations in general), as well as cases of Jewish complicity in crimes against Poles during and immediately following the war.

根据Coordination Forum of Countering Antisemitism there were eighteen anti-Semitic incidents in Poland in the period from January 2001 to November 2005. Half of them was propaganda, eight were violent incidents such as vandalism or desecration (the last of them took place in 2003), and one was verbal abuse. There were no anti-Semitic attacks by means of weapons in Poland [9]. However, according to a 2005 survey, the portion of the population holding anti-Semitic views is somewhat higher than in some European countries [10]. According to a survey carried out by CBOS and published in January, 2005, in which Poles were asked to assess their attitudes toward other nations, 45% claimed to feel antipathy towards Jews, 18% to feel sympathy, while 29% felt indifferent and 8% were undecided. Those surveyed were asked to express their feeling on the scale from -3 (strong antipathy) to +3 (strong sympathy), with 0 taken to indicate indifference. The average score for attitude towards Jews was -0.67.

In the meantime Jewish religious life has been revived with the help of the Ronald Lauder Foundation, the Polish Jewish community employs two rabbis, operated a small network of Jewish schools and summer camps, and sustains several Jewish periodicals and book series events. In 1993 the Union of Jewish Religious Communities in Poland was established with the aim of organizing the religious and cultural life of the members of the communities in Poland.

Academic Jewish studies programs were established at Warsaw University and the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. Kraków became home to the Judaica Foundation, which has sponsored a wide range of cultural and educational programs on Jewish themes for a predominantly Polish audience. The Polish government will finance the construction of the Museum of the History of Polish Jews in Warsaw.

Polish-Jewish March of the Living, Auschwitz, 2000.

波兰是共产党阵营中第一个恢复承认以色列的国家（1986年），and restored full diplomatic relations in 1990。波兰和以色列两国政府的关系 are steadily improving, resulting in the mutual visits of the presidents and the ministers of foreign affairs.

There have been a number of Holocaust remembrance activities in Poland in recent years. In September 2000, dignitaries from Poland, Israel, the United States, and other countries (including Prince Hassan of Jordan) gathered in the city of Oświęcim (the site of the Auschwitz concentration camp) to commemorate the opening of the refurbished Chevra Lomdei Mishnayot synagogue and the Auschwitz Jewish Center. The synagogue, the sole synagogue in Oświęcim to survive World War II and an adjacent Jewish cultural and educational center, provide visitors a place to pray and to learn about the active pre–World War II Jewish community that existed in Oświęcim. The synagogue was the first communal property in the country to be returned to the Jewish community under the 1997 law allowing for restitution of Jewish communal property. Additionally, in April of each year, the March of the Living from Auschwitz to Birkenau to honor victims of the Holocaust, draws Poles as well as marchers from Israel and elsewhere. There are also more general activities, like the Jewish Culture Festival in Kraków.

2000, Poland's Jewish population is generally estimated to have risen to somewhere between 8,000 and 12,000 — most living in Warsaw, Wrocław, and Bielsko-Biała, though there are no census figures that would give an exact number. According to the Polish Moses Schorr Centre and other Polish sources; however, this may represent an undercount of the actual number of Jews living in Poland, since many are not religious. The Centre estimates that there are approximately 100,000 Jews in Poland, of which 30,000 to 40,000 have some sort of direct connection to the Jewish community, either religiously or culturally.

[编辑] 参见

• Chronology of Jewish Polish history
• 波兰犹太人列表
• Jewish history
• Jewish ethnic divisions

[编辑] 参考资料

Template:JewishEncyclopedia

Inline

1. ^ ^{1.0 1.1} Timothy Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999, Yale University Press, ISBN 030010586XGoogle Books, p.144
2. ↑ Feigue Cieplinski, Poles and Jews: The Quest For Self-Determination 1919-1934, Binghamton Journal of History, Fall 2002, Last accessed on 2 June 2006.

General

• Marek Jan Chodakiewicz, After the Holocaust, East European Monographs, 2003, ISBN 0880335114.
• Marek Jan Chodakiewicz, Between Nazis and Soviets: Occupation Politics in Poland, 1939–1947, Lexington Books, 2004, ISBN 0739104845.
• William W. Hagen, Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland, The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 68, No. 2 (Jun., 1996), 351–381.
• Gershon David Hundert, Jews in Poland-Lithuania in the Eighteenth Century: A Genealogy of Modernity, University of California Press, 2004, ISBN 0520238443 Google Print
• Antony Polonsky and Joanna B. Michlic. The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedwabne Massacre in Poland, Princeton University Press, 2003 ISBN 0691113068. (The introduction is online)
• Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski, Jews in Poland. A Documentary History, Hippocrene Books, Inc., 1998, ISBN 0781806046.
• David Vital, A People Apart: A Political History of the Jews in Europe 1789-1939, Oxford University Press, 2001.
• M. J. Rosman, The Lord's Jews: Magnate-Jewish Relations in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth During the Eighteenth Century, Harvard University Press, 1990, ISBN 0916458180

[编辑] 延伸阅读

• Alvydas Nikzentaitis, Stefan Schreiner, Darius Staliunas (editors). The Vanished World of Lithuanian Jews. Rodopi, 2004, ISBN 9042008504 Google print

[编辑] 注释

1. ^ William W. Hagen, Before the "Final Solution": Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland, The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 68, No. 2 (Jun., 1996), 351-381.
2. ^ Andrzej Kapiszewski's article on the reports of the situation of the Jews (pdf)
3. ^  The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust by Martin Gilbert, pp.21. Relevant page viewable via Google book search
4. ^  Death tolls in the Holocaust, from the US Holocaust Museum
5. ^ Summary of IPN's final findings on Jedwabne (English)
6. ^  Discussion of IPN findings
7. ^  Note of December 10 1942, addressed by the Polish Government to the Governments of the united nations concerning the mass extermination of Jews

[编辑] 外部链接

• Extermination of Jews in Poland during the Holocaust from Holocaust Survivors' Network -- iSurvived.org

您可以在维基共享资源查找与此分类相关的多媒体资源：
Category:波兰犹太人历史

[编辑] 地图

• The Cossak Uprising and its Aftermath in Poland, Jewish Communities in Poland and Lithuania under the Council of the Four Lands, The Spread of Hasidic Judaism, Jewish Revolts against the Nazis in Poland (All maps from Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice)

[编辑] 波兰犹太人历史

• Beyond the Pale: A History of the Jews in Russia. See especially: Jews of Lithuania and Poland
• Mike Rose's History of the Jews in Poland before 1794 and After 1794
• Virtual Jewish History Tour of Poland
• Early History of the Polish Jewish Community from Medieval Jewish Civilization: An Encyclopedia
• Jews in Poland from the LNT Travel company.
• Judaism in the Baltic: Vilna as the Spiritual Center of Eastern Europe
• The Jews in Poland. Saving from oblivion - Teaching for the future
• Historical Sites of Jewish Warsaw
• Kazimierz in Kraków - History and Jewish Festivals
• Jewish presence in the history of Gliwice
• Polish-Jewish Relations section of the Polish Embassy in Washington
• Facts and Myths: on the Role of the Jews during the Stalinist Period
• http://www.ce-review.org/00/4/rohozinska4.html A Complicated Coexistence:Polish-Jewish relations through the centuries], Joanna Rohozinska, Central Europe Review, 28 January 2000

[编辑] World War II and the Holocaust

• Warsaw Ghetto Uprising from the US Holocaust Museum. From the same source see:
  • Non-Jewish Polish Victims of the Holocaust
  • Bibliography of Polish Jewish Relations during the War
• Chronology of German Anti-Jewish Measures during World War II in Poland
• THE JEWS AND THE POLES: HOLOCAUST UNDERSTANDING & PREVENTION by Alexander Kimel
• The Catholic Zionist Who Helped Steer Israeli Independence through the UN

[编辑] Contemporary Polish-Jewish life and organizations

• Official Site of the Orthodox Jewish Community in Poland, see also their list of related links
• Orthodox Synagogue in Warsaw
• Congregation of Liberal Jews in Warsaw
• Diapozytyw. Contemporary Jewish Life in Poland
• Jewish Historical Institute of Poland, founded in 1928.
• Foundation for Preservation of Jewish Heritage in Poland
• Judaica Foundation
• The Association of "Children of the Holocaust" in Poland
• Poland's Jews:A light flickers on, The Economist, 20 December 2005

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