Angola

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Angola is a country in south-central Africa bordering Namibia to the south, Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, and Zambia to the east, and with a west coast along the Atlantic Ocean. The exclave province Cabinda has a border with the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. A former Portuguese colony, it has considerable natural resources, among which oil and diamonds are the most significant. The country is nominally a democracy and is formally named the Republic of Angola (Portuguese: República de Angola, pronounced IPA: [ʁɛ'publikɐ dɨ ɐ̃'gɔlɐ], Kongo: Repubilika ya Ngola).

Contents 1 History 1.1 Colonial era 1.2 Independence 1.3 Civil war 1.4 Ceasefire with UNITA 2 Politics 3 Administrative divisions 4 Military 5 Police 6 Geography 7 Economy 8 Culture 9 See also 10 References 11 Further Reading 12 External links

[edit] History

Main article: History of Angola

The earliest inhabitants of the area were Khoisan hunter-gatherers. They were largely replaced by Bantu tribes during Bantu migrations. In present-day Angola, Portugal settled in 1483 at the river Congo, where the Kongo State, Ndongo and Lunda existed. The Kongo State stretched from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. In 1575 Portugal established a colony at Luanda based on the slave trade. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the sixteenth century by a series of treaties and wars forming the colony of Angola. The Dutch occupied Luanda from 1641-1648, where they allied with local tribes to consolidate their colonial rule against the remaining Portuguese resistance.

[edit] Colonial era

In 1648, Portugal retook Luanda and initiated a process of reconquest of lost territories, which restored the pre-occupation possessions of Portugal by 1650. Treaties regulated relations with Congo in 1649 and Njinga's Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo in 1656. The conquest of Pungo Andongo in 1671 was the last great Portuguese expansion, as attempts to invade Congo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed.

Portugal expanded its territory behind the colony of Benguela in the eighteenth century, and began the attempt to occupy other regions in the mid-nineteenth century. The process resulted in few gains until the 1880s. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior didn't occur until the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1951, the colony was restyled as an overseas province, also called Portuguese West Africa.

Portugal had a colonial presence in Angola for nearly five hundred years, and the population's initial reaction to calls for independence was mixed.

[edit] Independence

After the overthrow of colonial Portugal's government by a socialist-inspired military coup, Angola's nationalist parties began to negotiate for independence in January 1975. An agreement was reached with the Portuguese government, with independence to be declared in November 1975. Almost immediately, a civil war broke out between MPLA, UNITA and FNLA, exacerbated by foreign intervention. Upon independence from Portugal in 1975, Angola's capital and nominal government came under the one-party rule of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA).

South Africa soon became involved in the Angolan conflict, ostensibly to protect its interests in its territory of South West Africa, present-day Namibia. The South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) was fighting for independence from South Africa from bases inside Angola. In an attempt to prevent cross-border operations by SWAPO forces, the South African military, the South African Defense Forces, cleared a one-kilometer-wide strip in Angola along nearly half the length of the 1,376 km long border. Zaire, which had provided support to FNLA guerrillas, soon began to furnish support for UNITA as well. In turn, the Soviet Union began to significantly increase military aid to MPLA, providing armored vehicles, aircraft, and advisors, while large numbers of Cuban troops were airlifted by Soviet transport planes into Angola in an undisguised effort to tip the military balance in favor of the MPLA. By October 1975, MPLA and Cuban forces took control of Luanda, and much of the country's infrastructure, forcing UNITA forces to revert to guerrilla actions. The MPLA declared itself unilaterally to be the de facto government of the country when independence was formally declared in November, with Agostinho Neto as the first President.

In 1976, the FNLA was defeated by Cuban troops, leaving the MPLA and UNITA (now backed by the United States and South Africa) to fight for power. Since 1979, Jose Eduardo dos Santos has been in control of the country's political leadership. Despite the introduction of a multi-party system in 1991, the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) has remained in power.

[edit] Civil war

The conflict between MPLA and UNITA raged on in the countryside, fueled by the geopolitics of the Cold War and by the ability of both parties to access Angola's natural resources. In 1991, the factions agreed to the Bicesse Accords which were intended to convert Angola from a one-party authoritarian government into a multiparty state with democratic elections in 1992. President dos Santos led the first round of the election with more than 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40%. After claims of fraud, civil war again broke out, and the final runoff election never took place. A 1994 peace accord (the Lusaka protocol) between the government and UNITA provided for the integration of former UNITA insurgents into the government. A national unity government was installed in 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late 1998, rendering hundreds of thousands of people homeless. The international community largely blamed UNITA for the breakdown in the Lusaka peace process; as a consequence the UN Security Council imposed sanctions against them (Kevlihan, 2003). Despite the formation of a government of national unity, which included dissaffected elements of UNITA (UNITA-Renovada), generally known by its Portuguese acronym of GURN, power remained with the MPLA, concentrated in particular in the hands of the Preident Dos Santos and his circle of close advisors.

The MPLA drew upon the revenues of off-shore oil resources, while UNITA accessed alluvial diamonds that were easily smuggled through the region's very porous borders (Chilliers & Dietrich, 2000, Le Billon, 2001). The Angolan government was heavily criticized by human rights organisations for a lack of transparency in the sources and uses of its oil revenue during this time (Global Witness (1999), Human Rights Watch (2004)); what detailed analysis was possible of Angola's expenditure on social services during the war highlighted the extremely low levels of expenditure on health and education, and the way in which large proportions of available budgets benefited elites through scholarships and access to health care overseas (Hodges, 2004). Meanwhile, Angola suffered from one of the highest caseloads of internally displaced persons in the world, displacement caused in large part by the military tactics of both UNITA and government forces (Lari & Kevlihan (2005), Médecins Sans Frontières (2002)).

[edit] Ceasefire with UNITA

On February 22, 2002, Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, was killed in combat with government troops, and a cease-fire was reached by the two factions. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilize, President dos Santos has so far refused to institute regular democratic processes. Among Angola's major problems are a serious humanitarian crisis (a result of the prolonged war), the abundance of minefields, and the actions of guerrilla movements fighting for the independence of the northern exclave of Cabinda (Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda). While most of the internally displaced have now returned home, the general situation for most Angolans remains desperate, and the development challenges facing the government challenging as a consequence (Lari (2004), Human Rights Watch (2005)).

[edit] Politics

Main article: Politics of Angola

Angola's motto is "Virtus Unita Fortior", a Latin phrase meaning "Virtue is stronger when united."

The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Prime Minister (currently Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos) and Council of Ministers. Currently, political power is concentrated in the Presidency. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only twelve of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. Critics have drawn an ironic comparison between Angola's current one-party rule and the authoritarian regime of António de Oliveira Salazar of Portugal, under whose rule Angolans began their revolt for independence.

The 27-year-long Angolan Civil War ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 4 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.

The current government has announced an intention to hold elections in 2008. These elections would be the first since 1992 and would serve to elect both a new president and a new National Assembly.

See also: List of political parties in Angola

[edit] Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Angola and Municipalities of Angola

Angola is divided into eighteen provinces (províncias) and 158 municipalities (municípios). The provinces are:

1. Bengo 2. Benguela 3. Bié 4. Cabinda 5. Cuando Cubango 6. Cuanza Norte

7. Cuanza Sul 8. Cunene 9. Huambo 10. Huila 11. Luanda 12. Lunda Norte 13. Lunda Sul 14. Malanje 15. Moxico 16. Namibe 17. Uige 18. Zaire

[edit] Military

Main article: Military of Angola

The military of Angola is represented by the Armed Popular Forces for the Liberation of Angola (Forças Amadas Populares de Libertação de Angola—FAPLA). FAPLA is divided into an army, navy, air force, and territorial troops (a militia). In 2002, the army had a total of 90,000 active personnel armed with 400 main battle tanks; the navy had 4,000 personnel and 7 vessels; and the air defense forces had 6,000 personnel and 104 combat aircraft and 40 armed helicopters. The defense budget for 2006 was approximately 6.6% of the country's GDP¹. The UNITA (Union for the Total Independence of Angola) opposition forces leader was killed in February 2002, ending a 40 year conflict.

¹https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ao.html#Military

[edit] Police

The National Police departments are : Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing, which will provide helicopter support for police operations. The National Police are also developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The National Police has an estimated 6,000 patrol officers, 2,500 Taxation and Frontier Supervision officers, 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and 90 Economic Activity Inspectors.

The National Police have implemented a modernization and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganization; modernization projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programs and the replacement of AKM rifles with 9mm UZIs for police officers in urban areas.

[edit] Geography

Main article: Geography of Angola

At 481,321 mi² (1,246,700 km²[1]), Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country (after Niger). It is comparable in size to Mali and is nearly twice the size of the US state of Texas.

Angola is bordered by Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east, and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west. The exclave of Cabinda also borders the Republic of the Congo to the north. Angola's capital, Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the north-west of the country. Angola's average temperature on the coast is 60 degrees Fahrenheit (16 °C) in the winter and 70 degrees Fahrenheit (21 °C) in the summer.

[edit] Economy

Main article: Economy of Angola

Angola's economy has undergone a period of transformation in recent years, moving from the disarray caused by a quarter century of war to being the fastest growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest in the world. In 2004, China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola. The loan is being used to rebuild Angola's infrastructure, and has also limited the influence of the International Monetary Fund in the country. [2]

Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed 1.4 million barrels per day in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to 2 million barrels per day by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group, a conglomerate which is owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of OPEC.^[1] The economy grew 18% in 2005; growth is expected to reach 26% in 2006 and stay above 10% for the rest of the decade. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production.

[edit] Culture

Main article: Culture of Angola

[edit] See also

Angolan Civil War Angola national football team Angola national basketball team Associação de Escuteiros de Angola Communications in Angola

Angolan musicians Contemporary Dance Company of Angola Demographics of Angola Foreign relations of Angola

Islam in Angola Military of Angola Sonangol Group Transport in Angola

Lists

• List of Angolan companies
• List of writers from Angola
• List of Angola-related topics

[edit] References

• Cilliers, Jackie and Christian Dietrich, Eds. (2000). Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies.

• Global Witness (1999). A Crude Awakening, The Role of Oil and Banking Industries in Angola's Civil War and the Plundering of State Assets. London, UK, Global Witness. http://www.globalwitness.org/media_library_detail.php/93/en/a_crude_awakening

• Hodges, T. (2004). Angola: The Anatomy of an Oil State. Oxford, UK and Indianapolis, US, The Fridtjol Nansen Institute & The International African Institute in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press.

• Human Rights Watch (2004). Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenues in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights. New York, Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/angola0104/

• Human Rights Watch (2005). Coming Home, Return and Reintegration in Angola. New York, Human Rights Watch. http://hrw.org/reports/2005/angola0305/

• Kevlihan, R. (2003). "Sanctions and humanitarian concerns: Ireland and Angola, 2001-2." Irish Studies in International Affairs 14: 95-106.

• Lari, A. (2004). Returning home to a normal life? The plight of displaced Angolans. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/85/Paper85.pdf

• Lari, A. and R. Kevlihan (2004). "International Human Rights Protection in Situations of Conflict and Post-Conflict, A Case Study of Angola." African Security Review 13(4): 29-41. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No4/FLari.pdf

• Le Billon, P. (2001). "Angola’s Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds." African Affairs(100): 55-80.

• Médecins Sans Frontières (2002). Angola: Sacrifice of a People. Luanda, Angola, MSF. http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/publications/reports/2002/angola1_10-2002.pdf

[edit] Further Reading

• Le Billon, P. (2005). "Aid in the Midst of Plenty: Oil Wealth, Misery and Advocacy in Angola." Disasters 29(1): 1-25.
• Pearce, J. (2004). "War, Peace and Diamonds in Angola: Popular perceptions of the diamond industry in the Lundas." 2005.African Security Review 13 (2), 2004, pp 51-64. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No2/AW.pdf
• Porto, J. G. (2003). Cabinda: Notes on a soon to be forgotten war. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/77/Paper77.html
• Tvedten, I. (1997). Angola, Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press.
• Vines, A. (1999). Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process. New York and London, UK, Human Rights Watch.

[edit] External links

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Government

• Republic of Angola (official government portal)
• (Portuguese) National Assembly of Angola
• Embassy of Angola in Washington DC
• Embassy of Angola in Ottawa, Canada

News

• Canal Angola ONLINE News about music from Angola and events
• children of Angola - a web documentary on the forgotten children of Angola.
• - Newspapers from Angola - The most important online newspapers from Angola.
• allAfrica - Angola - News headline links
• Angola Press - Government-controlled news agency (in Portuguese, French and English)
• Angonoticias (in Portuguese) - A popular news source in Angola
• Mangole (in Portuguese) - A full news source in Angola and web directory of Angolan sites online
• Televisão Pública de Angola (in Portuguese) - Angola's state-owned national tv station
• Rádio Nacional de Angola (in Portuguese) - Angola's state-owned national radio station
• Jornal de Angola (in Portuguese) - A popular newspaper in Angola
• 400 Years Ago - Washington Post news story on the possible fate of the first African slaves taken to US.

Politics

• Official webpage of MPLA
• Official webpage of UNITA
• Official webpage of JMPLA

Overviews

• BBC - Country profile: Angola
• CIA World Factbook entry on Angola
• US State Department - Angola includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
• OECD DEV/AfDB - Country Study: Angola
• Rural poverty in Angola (IFAD)

Directories

• Columbia University Libraries - Angola directory category of the WWW-VL
• Open Directory Project - Angola directory category
• Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: Angola directory category
• www.angolinks.com - webdirectory of Angolan sites online
• Encyclopedia of the Nations : Angola

Tourism

• Angola travel guide from Wikitravel

Other

• Angola Conflict Briefing
• Angola Constitution
• www.luandamap.com - streetsearch in Luanda and other maps related to Angola
• www.cidadeluanda.com - Portal and Directory of Luanda

Geographic locale

v • d • e Countries of Southern Africa Angola · Botswana · Lesotho · Madagascar · Malawi · Mauritius · Mozambique · Namibia · South Africa · Swaziland · Zambia · Zimbabwe v • d • e Countries of Africa Sovereign states Algeria · Angola · Benin · Botswana · Burkina Faso · Burundi · Cameroon · Cape Verde · Central African Republic · Chad · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Republic of the Congo · Comoros · Côte d'Ivoire · Djibouti · Egypt1 · Equatorial Guinea · Eritrea · Ethiopia · Gabon · The Gambia · Ghana · Guinea-Bissau · Guinea · Kenya · Lesotho · Liberia · Libya · Madagascar · Malawi · Mali · Mauritania · Mauritius · Morocco · Mozambique · Namibia · Niger · Nigeria · Rwanda · Senegal · Seychelles · Sierra Leone · Somalia · South Africa · Spain2 · Sudan · Swaziland · São Tomé and Príncipe · Tanzania · Togo · Tunisia · Uganda · Zambia · Zimbabwe Dependencies  |  Unrecognized British Indian Ocean Territory (UK) · French Southern and Antarctic Lands (France) · Mayotte (France) · Réunion (France) · St. Helena3 (UK)  |  Puntland · Somaliland · Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic 1 Partly in Asia.  2 Mostly in Europe.  3 Includes the dependencies of Ascension Island and Tristan da Cunha. ‹ The template below has been proposed for deletion. See templates for deletion to help reach a consensus on what to do. › }} v • d • e Countries and territories on the South Atlantic Ocean Africa: Angola • Democratic Republic of the Congo • Republic of the Congo • Gabon • Namibia • South Africa South America: Argentina • Brazil • Falkland Islands • Uruguay On the between: Ascension Island • Saint Helena • Tristan da Cunha

International membership

v • d • e Member states of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Angola · Botswana · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Lesotho · Madagascar · Malawi · Mauritius · Mozambique · Namibia · Seychelles · South Africa · Swaziland · Tanzania · Zambia · Zimbabwe    v • d • e Member states of the African Union Algeria · Angola · Benin · Botswana · Burkina Faso · Burundi · Cameroon · Cape Verde · Central African Republic · Chad · Comoros · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Republic of the Congo · Côte d'Ivoire · Djibouti · Egypt · Eritrea · Ethiopia · Equatorial Guinea · Gabon · The Gambia · Ghana · Guinea · Guinea-Bissau · Kenya · Lesotho · Liberia · Libya · Madagascar · Malawi · Mali · Mauritania · Mauritius · Mozambique · Namibia · Niger · Nigeria · Rwanda · São Tomé and Príncipe · Senegal · Seychelles · Sierra Leone · Somalia · South Africa · Sudan · Swaziland · Tanzania · Togo · Tunisia · Uganda · Western Sahara (SADR) · Zambia · Zimbabwe v • d • e Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) Angola • Brazil • Cape Verde • East Timor • Guinea-Bissau • Mozambique • Portugal • São Tomé and Príncipe Observer: Equatorial Guinea • Mauritius v • d • e Latin Union Andorra • Angola • Argentina • Bolivia • Brazil • Cape Verde • Chile • Côte d'Ivoire • Costa Rica • Cuba • Dominican Republic • Ecuador • El Salvador • France • Guatemala • Guinea-Bissau • Holy See • Honduras • Italy • Mexico • Moldova • Monaco • Mozambique • Nicaragua • Panama • Paraguay • Peru • Philippines • Portugal • Romania • San Marino • São Tomé and Príncipe • Senegal • Sovereign Military Order of Malta • Spain • Uruguay • Venezuela v • d • e Niger-Congo-speaking nations v • d • e Kordofanian  Sudan v • d • e Mande  Gambia •  Guinea •  Guinea-Bissau •  Mali •  Mauritania •  Senegal •  Sierra Leone v • d • e Atlantic-Congo Atlantic  Benin •  Burkina Faso •  Cameroon •  Central African Republic •  Chad •  Côte d'Ivoire •  Gambia •  Guinea •  Guinea-Bissau •  Liberia •  Mali •  Mauritania •  Niger •  Senegal •  Sierra Leone •  Sudan •  Togo Ijoid  Nigeria Dogon  Mali v • d • e Volta-Congo Senufo  Benin •  Côte d'Ivoire •  Mali Gur  Benin •  Burkina Faso •  Côte d'Ivoire •  Ghana •  Mali •  Nigeria •  Togo Adamawa-Ubangi  Cameroon •  Central African Republic •  Chad •  Nigeria Kru  Burkina Faso •  Côte d'Ivoire •  Liberia Kwa  Benin •  Côte d'Ivoire •  Ghana •  Nigeria •  Togo v • d • e Benue-Congo Bantu  Angola •  Botswana •  Burundi •  Cameroon •  Democratic Republic of the Congo •  Republic of the Congo •  Equatorial Guinea •  Gabon •  Kenya •  Nigeria •  Malawi •  Mozambique •  Namibia •  Rwanda •  Somalia •  South Africa •  Swaziland •  Tanzania •  Uganda •  Zambia •  Zimbabwe Yoruba and Igbo  Nigeria