Purgatory

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Purgatory, or final purification, is a dogma of the Roman Catholic Church; according to the current Catechism: "All who die in God's grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven. The Church gives the name Purgatory to this final purification of the elect, which is entirely different from the punishment of the damned."^[1] The doctrine includes, and is indeed based on, the belief that these elect may be aided by the prayer and sufferings of the faithful and the Sacrifice of the Mass.^[2]

Belief in the purification of the soul after death and the efficacy of prayers for the dead are found in Christian antiquity. During the Middle Ages, the doctrine of final purification developed distinctive features in the Latin-speaking West and the Greek-speaking East, and the differences became a matter of debate. Also, during the Protestant Reformation, certain Protestant theologians developed a view of salvation (soteriology) that did not include purgatory.

While Eastern Orthodox Churches generally continue to see "purgatory" as a matter of contention, the Eastern Catholic Churches (which are in full communion with the See of Rome) understand the Greek articulation of a "final theosis" and the Latin articulation of "purgatory" to be essentially equivalent — a final purification.^[3] Protestants, with a few exceptions, do not believe in a process of purification after death.

Contents 1 History of the Doctrine 1.1 Christian Antiquity 1.2 Middle Ages 1.3 Subsequent history 1.3.1 Latin-Greek relations 1.3.2 Reformation & Protestantism 1.4 Interpretations 2 Latin tradition 3 Greek tradition 4 Catholic spirituality 5 Purgatory in art and culture 6 Footnotes 7 Sources 8 See also 9 External links

[edit] History of the Doctrine

As formulated in the current Catechism of the Catholic Church, the doctrine of purgatory, also termed the “final purification”, is articulated as a purification after death prior to entrance into heaven, and explained as “based on the practice of prayer for the dead.”^[4]

[edit] Christian Antiquity

Offerings to the dead were known to ancient Jewish practice, and it has been speculated that Christianity may have taken its similar practice from its Jewish heritage.^[6] In Christianity, prayer for the dead is attested to since at least the second century,^[7] evidenced in part by the tomb inscription of Abercius, Bishop of Hierapolis in Phrygia (d. c. 200).^[8] Celebration of the Eucharist for the dead is attested to since at least the third century.^[9]

Specific examples of belief in purification after death and of the communion of the living with the dead through prayer are found in many of the Church Fathers.^[10] The patristic authors often understood those undergoing purification to be awaiting the universal judgment before receiving final blessedness, and they also often described this purification as a journey which entailed hardships but also powerful glimpses of joy.^[11] Irenaeus (c. 130-202) mentioned an abode where the souls of the dead remained until the universal judgment, a process that has been described as one which "contains the concept of... purgatory."^[12] Both St. Clement of Alexandria (c. 150-215) and his pupil, Origen (c. 185-254), developed a view of purification after death;^[13] this view drew upon the notion that fire is a divine instrument from the Old Testament, and understood this in the context of New Testament teachings such as baptism by fire, from the Gospels, and a purificatory trial after death, from St. Paul.^[14] Origen, in arguing against soul sleep, stated that the souls of the elect immediately entered paradise unless not yet purified, in which case they passed into a state of punishment, a penal fire, which is to be conceived as a place of purification.^[15] For both Clement and Origen, the fire was neither a material thing nor a metaphor, but a "spiritual fire".^[16] An early Latin author, Tertullian (c. 160-225), also articulated a view of purification after death.^[17] In Tertullian's understanding of the afterlife, the souls of martyrs entered directly into eternal blessedness,^[18] whereas the rest entered a realm of the dead. The wicked suffered a foretaste of their eternal punishments,^[19] whilst the good experienced various stages and places of bliss wherein "the idea of a kind of purgatory… is quite plainly found," an idea that is representative of a view widely dispersed in antiquity.^[20] Later examples, wherein further elaborations are articulated, include St. Cyprian (d. 258),^[21] St. John Chrysostom (c. 347-407),^[22] and St. Augustine (354-430),^[23] among others.

[edit] Middle Ages

During the Middle Ages, the doctrine of final purification developed distinctive features in the Latin-speaking West differing from its development in the Greek-speaking East. Pope Gregory the Great's Dialogues, written in the late sixth century, evidence a development in the understanding of the afterlife distinctive of the direction that Latin Christendom would take:

As for certain lesser faults, we must believe that, before the Final Judgment, there is a purifying fire. He who is truth says that whoever utters blasphemy against the Holy Spirit will be pardoned neither in this age nor in the age to come. From this sentence we understand that certain offenses can be forgiven in this age, but certain others in the age to come.^[25]

For Gregory, God was further illuminating the nature of the afterlife, sending visions and the like, whereby, more fully than before, the outlines of the fate of the soul immediately beyond the grave were becoming visible, like the half-light that precedes the dawn.^[26] Visions of purgatory abounded; Bede mentioned a vision of a beautiful Heaven and a lurid Hell with adjacent temporary abodes,^[27] as did St. Boniface.^[28] In the seventh century, the Irish abbot St. Fursa described his foretaste of the afterlife, where, though protected by angels, he was pursued by demons who said, "It is not fitting that he should enjoy the blessed life unscathed..., for every transgression that is not purged on earth must be avenged in heaven," and on his return he was engulfed in a billowing fire that threatened to burn him, "for it stretches out each one according to their merits... For just as the body burns through unlawful desire, so the soul will burn, as the lawful, due penalty for every sin."^[29] Already in the early fifth century, St. Augustine had described the role of fire in the process of purgation, writing that the pains of purgatorial fire "will be more severe than anything man is able to suffer in this life".^[30] In the ninth century, Haymo stated that prayers and lamentations of the living, supported by almsgiving and masses, would shorten the period of purgatorial suffering.^[31] Others who expounded upon on the doctrine include Rabanus Maurus and Walafrid Strabo,^[32] to name just two.

By the twelfth century, the process of purification had acquired the Latin name, "purgatorium", from the verb purgare: to purge.^[33] Dogmatic definition of purgatory was given in 1254. Against those who denied purgatory the Catholic Church asserted: "[W]e, since they say a place of purgation of this kind has not been indicated to them with a certain and proper name by their teachers, we indeed, calling it purgatory according to the traditions and authority of the Holy Fathers, wish that in the future it be called by that name...".^[34] By this time, Latin theology had developed a sophisticated understanding of the afterlife articulated in legalistic terminology, and the understanding of purgatory had become fully integrated with indulgences and other penitential practices.

[edit] Subsequent history

[edit] Latin-Greek relations

In the 15th century, at the Council of Florence authorities of the Eastern Orthodox Church identified purgatory as a point on which there were principal differences between Greek and Latin doctrine.^[35] The decrees of the Council, however, formed the basis on which certain Eastern Communities were later received into full communion with the Roman Catholic Church.^[36] At the Council, the Roman Catholic Church assured the Greeks that no dogmatic decree on the exact details of the process of purification had been issued, and Bessarion (Latin Patriarch of Constantinople) argued against the existence of real purgatorial fire. In effecting full communion between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches in the Union of Brest (1585), the two agreed, "We shall not debate about purgatory, but we entrust ourselves to the teaching of the Holy Church,"^[37] implying that both sides need not dispute over the details.^[38] Furthermore, the Council of Trent, in its discussion of purgatory, instructed the bishops not to preach on such "difficult and subtle questions".^[39] Today, the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches understand the Greek articulation of a "final theosis", or process of deification whereby the soul is transformed into perfect union with God,^[40] and the Latin articulation of "purgatory" to be essentially equivalent — a final purification.^[41] However, some Eastern Orthodox Churches continue to see "purgatory" as a matter of contention.^[42]

[edit] Reformation & Protestantism

During the Reformation, certain Protestant theologians developed a view of salvation (soteriology) that excluded purgatory. This was in part a resulted from a doctrinal change concerning justification and sanctification on the part of the reformers. In Catholic theology, one is made righteous by a progressive infusion of divine grace accepted through faith and cooperated with through good works; however, in Martin Luther's doctrine, justification rather meant "the declaring of one to be righteous", where God imputes the merits of Christ upon one who remains without inherent merit.^[43] In this process, good works done in faith (i.e. penances) are more of an unessential byproduct that contribute nothing to one's own state of righteousness; hence, in Protestant theology, "becoming perfect" came to be understood as an instantaneous act of God and not a process or journey of purification that continues in the afterlife.

Thus, Protestant soteriology developed the view that each one of the elect (saved) experienced instantaneous glorification upon death. As such, there was little reason to pray for the dead. Luther wrote in Question No. 211 in his expanded Small Catechism: "We should pray for ourselves and for all other people, even for our enemies, but not for the souls of the dead." Luther, after he stopped believing in purgatory around 1530,^[44] openly affirmed the doctrine of soul sleep.^[45] Purgatory came to be seen as one of the "unbiblical corruptions" that had entered Church teachings sometime subsequent to the apostolic age. Hence, the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England produced during the English Reformation stated: "The Romish doctrine concerning Purgatory...is a fond thing vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture; but rather repugnant to the word of God" (article 22). Likewise, John Calvin, central theologian of Reformed Protestantism, considered purgatory a superstition, writing in his Institutes (5.10): "The doctrine of purgatory ancient, but refuted by a more ancient Apostle. Not supported by ancient writers, by Scripture, or solid argument. Introduced by custom and a zeal not duly regulated by the word of God… we must hold by the word of God, which rejects this fiction." In general, this position remains indicative of Protestant belief today, with the notable exception of certain Anglo-Catholics, such as the Guild of All Souls, which describe themselves as Reformed and Catholic (and specifically not Protestant) and believe in purgatory.

[edit] Interpretations

The historical development of the doctrine of purgatory has been the subject of many interpretations, especially concerning its origins. Part of the divergence of views has resulted from different definitions as to what constitutes the essence of the doctrine.

Catholic scholar and apologist John Henry Newman, in his Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine, argued that doctrines such as purgatory should be expected to develop over the course of the history of the Church. In this view, the essence of the doctrine is locatable in ancient tradition, and remains consistent throughout doctrinal development, but that “large accretions” are to be understood as “true and legitimate results” — indeed, Newman considered this evidence that Christianity was “originally given to us from heaven”.^[46] Newman wrote:

Moreover, the very scale on which [the developments] have been made, their high antiquity yet present promise, their gradual formation yet precision, their harmonious order, dispose the imagination most forcibly towards the belief that a teaching so consistent with itself, so well balanced, so young and so old, not obsolete after so many centuries, but vigorous and progressive still, is the very development contemplated in the Divine Scheme.^[47]

Protestant theology generally does not articulate such a view on doctrinal development, and certain Protestant scholars consider purgatory to be an “unbiblical” belief not derived from revelation. Hence, Adolf Harnack, a nineteenth century Protestant historian, argued that purgatory entered the Church via Hellenistic philosophy and thus represented an infusion of "unrealistic" and "unbiblical" ideas into Christianity.^[48] Notable exceptions include Anglican apologist C. S. Lewis, who suggested that, during the Reformation, the Church of England rejected purgatory only as it was then understood by the Roman church, distinguishing this from the idea of purgatory in general and believing in the latter.^[49]

Jacques Le Goff, medievalist and self-professed agnostic, argued that purgatory was “born” between 1170 and 1200, when purification after death was first said to be carried out in a specific place.^[50] Le Goff acknowledged the notion of purification after death in antiquity, arguing specifically that Clement of Alexandria, and his pupil Origen, derived their view from a combination of biblical teachings, though he considered vague concepts of purifying and punishing fire to predate Christianity.^[51] Le Goff also considered Peter the Lombard (d. 1160), in expounding on the teachings of St. Augustine and Gregory the Great, to have contributed significantly to the “birth” of purgatory. Le Goff’s view, however, has been criticized by fellow historians and scholars. Historian Alan E. Bernstein held that, “the insistence that there was no purgatory until it was conceived as a place represented by a noun seems unnecessarily strict,”^[52] and stated that, “Le Goff leaves us with a tangle of abstractions.”^[53] Historian Richard Trexler considered Le Goff’s “so-called birth of purgatory” to have been arrived at in part by “a priori” criteria and even occasional “tautological reasoning”,^[54] writing that, "From Christianity’s earliest records, the faithful are found performing suffrages to and for their dead, as if both were able to influence each other’s death.”^[55]

[edit] Latin tradition

See also: Latin Rite , Penance , and Indulgence

In Catholic doctrine, there are two types of sin, venial and mortal (light and grave). Every sin carries a punishment, and there are two punishments for sin: eternal punishment inflicted in Hell, and temporal punishment inflicted in this life or in purgatory (if left uncompleted upon death). Forgiveness of sin, for example through the absolution granted by confession, remits the eternal punishment. Penance, which includes good works done in faith (such as almsgiving, prayer, fasting, and suffering), remits temporal punishment, as do the related prayers for the dead and indulgences.^[56] Thus temporal punishment is a satisfaction for sin.^[57] The souls in purgatory undergo temporal punishment, either for unforgiven venial sins, or as satisfaction for sins that have been forgiven but for which the penance is incomplete.^[58] This is the means by which the souls of the elect are purified, and therefore purgatory applies to those who die in a state of grace (i.e. without un-forgiven mortal sins) but who as yet retain either un-forgiven venial sins or temporal punishment due for sins. These imperfections are purged before entrance into Heaven, where only the righteous made perfect may dwell. Everyone who enters purgatory belongs to the elect, and will therefore eventually reach Heaven. Hence, purgatory is not some lesser form of Hell. Hell is the eternal punishment for the damned, i.e. those who die with unforgiven mortal sin and have no hope but to suffer eternal separation from God.

A concise explication of the doctrine was presented by Julian, Cardinal Cesarini to the Eastern Orthodox fathers assembled at the Council of Ferrara-Florence, Session VI, June (c. 1438):

From the time of the Apostles, the Church of Rome has taught that the souls departed from this world that are pure and free from every taint, that is the souls of saints, immediately enter the regions of bliss. The souls of those who, following their baptism, have sinned, yet have thereafter sincerely repented and confessed their sins, but were unable either to perform the penances laid upon them by their spiritual father or to bring forth fruits of repentance sufficient to atone for their sins, are purified by the fire of purgatory — some sooner, others slower, according to their sins; and then, after their purification, they depart for the land of eternal bliss. The prayers of the priest, liturgies, and deeds of charity conduce much to their purification. The souls of those dead in mortal sin, or in original sin, go straight to punishment.^[59]

[edit] Greek tradition

See also: Eastern Catholic Churches and Eastern Orthodox Church

The Greek tradition is represented by the Eastern Orthodox Church, as well as the Eastern Catholic Churches (the latter are in full communion with the Bishop of Rome). The term "purgatory" and some of its related concepts are particular to the Latin tradition; instead, Greek tradition developed its understanding of prays for the dead and the soul's purification after death within the context of "theosis". Theosis, or deification, is understood as a journey whereby the soul is transformed into perfect union with God.^[61]

The Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches hold that there is a process of transformation for the dead destined for heaven, that prayer is efficacious for those in this state,^[62] and that some sins can be forgiven after death.^[63] Greek tradition, however, does not generally elaborate on the nature of the "temporary punishment" experienced and does not describe it in terms of suffering other than the punishment of enduring separation from God, i.e. the "waiting" itself;^[64] thus, the righteous may be said to be in light and rest, rather than suffering punishments.^[65] The legalistic terminology present in the Latin tradition is not employed in the Greek, and the notion of redemption through "satisfaction" of sins is not an articulation found in traditional Greek theology,^[66] which instead interprets sin as a spiritual disease that must be healed by divine love.^[67] The state wherein these souls undergo this experience is often referred to with the Greek word "Hades",^[68] as Greek tradition, without denying the particular judgment of each soul at the moment of death, holds that neither the just nor the wicked attain the final state of bliss or punishment before the last day,^[69] with some exceptions for righteous souls like the Theotokos (Blessed Virgin Mary).^[70] The souls of those who died with faith, but "without having had time to bring forth fruits worthy of repentance..., may be aided towards the attainment of a blessed resurrection [at the end of time] by prayers offered in their behalf, especially those offered in union with the oblation of the bloodless sacrifice of the Body and Blood of Christ, and by works of mercy done in faith for their memory."^[71] Sometimes the dead are described as "asleep in the Lord", though "sleep" here does not refer to the soul, but to the body,^[72] and the saints are understood as able to intercede on behalf of the living (see Intercession of saints).

[edit] Catholic spirituality

Many Catholics value the idea of purification after death as a particularly important element of their faith, considering it "a holy and wholesome thought to pray for the dead that they may be loosed from sins" (2Maccabees 12:39-46). Both Latin and Greek traditions practice the offering of masses / divine liturgies on their behalf,^[73] and numerous prayers, many dating from the earliest Christian times, express the communion between the living and the dead.^[74] The catacombs, for example, contain inscriptions that are often prayers for the dead,^[75] and the aforementioned inscription of Abercius on his gravesite includes, "…he who discerns these things, every fellow believer, let him pray for Abercius". The words of St. Monica near her death (late fourth century) are another example of an early Christian prayer expressing spirituality and belief in purgatory: "Only this I ask: that you will remember me at the Lord's altar, wherever you are."^[76]

An example of one Catholic prayer often said today along with grace after meals states: "...and may the souls of the faithful departed, through the mercy of God, rest in peace." The most famous example of a prayer said after Communion is perhaps the following prayer: "Eternal Father, I offer Thee the Most Precious Blood of Thy Divine Son, Jesus, in union with the Masses said throughout the world today, for all the Holy Souls in purgatory, for sinners everywhere, for sinners in the universal church, those in my own home and within my family. Amen." In addition to the everyday and liturgical spiritual life of the Roman Catholic, there exist Purgatorial societies, which regularly offer prayers, especially the Mass, for the deceased.

[edit] Purgatory in art and culture

Perhaps the best-known instance of purgatory in the arts is Dante's Purgatorio, the second book of his Divine Comedy. Likewise, the Ghost in William Shakespeare's Hamlet may also presuppose a belief in purgatory, and the themes of afterlife and judgment feature heavily in the play. Subsequently, purgatory has been featured in more recent works by authors such as Nick Bantock and Piers Anthony.

Many medieval altarpieces and other works of art feature purgatory amongst scenes of the afterlife. More recently, in the nineteenth century Gustave Doré produced a series of Illustrations for Dante's Purgatorio.

[edit] Footnotes

[edit] Sources

• Akin, James. How to explain Purgatory to Protestants
• Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999)
• Catechism of the Catholic Church, available online
• Catechism of St. Philaret (Drozdov) of Moscow
• Catholic Encyclopedia of 1914, Purgatory
• Clendenin, Daniel B. (ed.). Eastern Orthodox Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1995)
• Demetry, Constas H. Catechism of the Eastern Orthodox Church
• Dragani, Anthony. From East to West: Purgatory
• Haggh, Barbara. "The meeting of sacred ritual and secular piety: endowments for music", in Companion to Medieval & Renaissance Music (Oxford University Press, 1997)
• Harnack, Adolph. History of Dogma trans. Neil Buchanan (London, Williams & Norgate, 1995)
• MacCulloch, Diarmaid. The Reformation: A History. Penguin/Allan Lee (2003)
• O' Collins, Gerald and Mario Farrugia. Catholicism: the story of Catholic Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003)
• O' Collins Gerald, and Edward G. Farrugia. A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000)
• Meyondorff, John Byzantine Theology (London: Mowbrays, 1974)
• Russian Orthodox Information Center, The Orthodox Response to the Latin Doctrine of Purgatory, given at the Synod of Ferrara-Florence
• Watkins, C. S. "Sin, penance and purgatory in the Anglo-Norman realm: the evidence of visions and ghost stories", in Past and Present 175 (May 2002)

[edit] See also

Afterlife Christian eschatology The Divine Comedy Hades Heaven Hell Indulgence

Limbo Mortal sin Penance Purgatorial society Soteriology St. Patrick's Purgatory Venial sin

[edit] External links

• CatholicBridge.com, Purgatory — Ecumenical article by David MacDonald concerning Evangelical and Catholic belief
• Catholic Answers, Purgatory — Catholic apologetic article
• Bewadvent.org, Purgatory — 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article
• bringyou.to/apologetics — Readings from the Church Fathers and other sources on Purgatory, by Phil Porvaznik
• EWTN.com library, Heaven, Hell and Purgatory according to Pope John Paul II — Article from the newspaper of the Holy See, L'Osservatore Romano, July-August 1999
• JewishEncyclopedia.com, Purgatory — Article by Kaufmann Kohler in the online Jewish Encyclopedia
• New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Purgatory — Article by C. A. Beckwith in the 19th century Protestant encyclopedia (ed. Philip Schaff)
• I Believe in Purgatory... — excerpt from C. S. Lewis's Letters To Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer, chapter 20