狙击手
维基百科，自由的百科全书
A sniper is an infantry soldier who specializes in shooting from concealment and/or longer ranges than regular infantry, often with a specially designed or adapted sniper rifle. It requires skill in marksmanship, camouflage and field craft.
The term sniper is attested from 1824 in the sense of “sharpshooter.” The verb to snipe originated in the 1770s among soldiers in British India-in the sense of: “to shoot from a hidden place,” in allusion to snipe hunting, a game bird known for being extremely difficult to locate, approach, or shoot. Those who were skilled at the hunting of this bird were thus dubbed “snipers.”
During the American Civil War, the common term used in the United States for much the same function was “skirmisher.” A Civil War army often protected itself when on the move by using such concealed marksmen, who were deployed individually on the extremes of the moving army. Generally, such skirmishers were selected on the basis of prior proven hunting and marksmanship skills. Often these were either young soldiers with promising maneuverability and fieldcraft, or older men with refined marksmanship and tactical skills.[1] The term sniper hence did not reach widespread use in the United States until somewhat later than the American Civil War.
In the last few decades, the term “sniper” has been used rather loosely, especially by media in association with police precision riflemen, those responsible for assassination, any shooting from all but the shortest range in war, and any criminal equipped with a rifle in a civil context.[2] In the Bosnian War, and for much of the Siege of Beirut, the term “sniper” was used to refer to what were generally ill-trained soldiers who terrorized civilians, mainly by firing at them from hi-rise windows and rooftops. During the Siege of Sarajevo, the main street of the city became known as “Sniper Alley”.
This has rather expanded the general understanding the term. It has also given “sniper” mixed connotations. Official sources often use other terms, especially for police snipers: “counter-sniper,” “precision marksman,” “tactical marksman,” “sharpshooter,” or “precision shooter.” Some of these alternatives have been in common use for a long time; others are closer to undisguised euphemisms.
[编辑] Snipers in warfare
Different countries have different military doctrines regarding snipers in military units, settings, and tactics. Generally, a sniper’s goal in warfare is to reduce the enemy’s fighting ability by striking at a small number of high value targets, such as officers.
Soviet Russian and derived military doctrines include squad-level “snipers,” which may be called “sharpshooters” or “designated riflemen” in other doctrines (see below). They do so because this ability was lost to ordinary troops when assault rifles (which are optimized for close-in, rapid-fire combat) were adopted. See the “Soviet sniper” article for details.
Military snipers from the U.S., UK, and other countries that adopt their military doctrine are typically deployed in two-man sniper teams consisting of a shooter and spotter. The two have different functions and hence their assignment corresponds to their skills, but a common practice is for the shooter and spotter to take turns in order to avoid eye fatigue.
Typical sniper missions include reconnaissance and surveillance, counter-sniper, killing enemy commanders, selecting targets of opportunity, and even anti-matériel tasks (destruction of military equipment), which tend to require use of rifles in the larger calibers such as the .50 BMG. Snipers have of late been increasingly demonstrated as useful by U.S. and UK forces in the recent Iraq campaign in a fire support role to cover the movement of infantry, especially in urban areas.
The current record for longest range sniper kill is 2,430 meters (7,972 feet), accomplished by a Canadian sniper, Corporal Rob Furlong, of the third battalion Princess Patricia’s Canadian Light Infantry (3 PPCLI), during the invasion of Afghanistan, using a .50 BMG (12.7 mm) McMillan bolt-action rifle. This meant that the round had a flight time of four seconds, and a drop of 78.4 meters (257 feet). The previous record was held by U.S. Marine Carlos Hathcock, achieved during the Vietnam War, at a distance of 2,250 meters. Hathcock was also famous for his 93 confirmed kills during the Vietnam conflict. The most deadly sniper in the world was Simo Häyhä, with 505 confirmed kills within 100 days in the Winter War.
By contrast, much of the U.S./Coalition urban sniping in support of operations in Iraq is at much shorter ranges, although in one notable incident on April 3 2003, corporals Matt and Sam Hughes, a two-man sniper team of the Royal Marines, armed with L96 sniper rifles each killed targets at a range of about 860 m with shots that, due to strong wind, had to be “fire[d] exactly 17 meters [56 ft] to the left of the target for the bullet to bend in the wind.”[3]
[编辑] Police snipers
Police forces typically deploy snipers in hostage scenarios. They are trained to shoot only as a last resort, when there is a direct threat to life. Police snipers typically operate at much shorter ranges than military snipers, generally under 100 meters and sometimes even less than 50 meters. Police snipers do not generally attempt to shoot to incapacitate; when they shoot, they shoot to kill, though there have been some notable exceptions with varying success.
The need for specialized training for police snipers was made apparent in 1972 during the Munich massacre; the police deployed untrained personnel with sniper equipment [來源請求] during the standoff at the airport in the closing phase of the crisis, and consequently all of the Israeli hostages were killed. (The use of snipers of the German army was impossible due to the German constitution's explicit prohibition of the use of the military in domestic matters. This situation was later addressed with the founding of the GSG-9 group.)
In one high-profile incident, a SWAT sniper in Columbus, Ohio prevented a suicide by shooting a revolver out of the potential victim's hand, leaving him unharmed. Despite this success, video footage later revealed that the target narrowly avoided severe injury from shrapnel.[來源請求] Marksmen shooting at loaded guns to test this technique under controlled conditions have shown very mixed results. The target gun can discharge in a random direction; and even a direct hit on the gun may fail to fully disable it. Also, firing a bullet in the direction of a target is considered to be deadly force in most jurisdictions, and the use of deadly force to subdue a potential suicide victim is illegal in some of these.
In peacetime, police snipers like those of the FBI’s Critical Incident Response Group (e.g. the Hostage Rescue Team) typically serve longer in the role, receiving more training and more operational experience [來源請求] than their military counterparts.
[编辑] Training
Specialized training is essential to provide a sniper with the skills needed to perform well. Military sniper training aims to teach a high degree of proficiency in camouflage and concealment, stalking and observation as well as precision marksmanship under wide operational conditions. Trainees typically shoot thousands of rounds over a number of weeks, while learning these core skills.
Marksmanship training is only one of the many aspects of a sniper's training. Specialized tactics also have to be applied in order for a sniper to enter and remain in an area undetected. Snipers are often relied upon as forward observers and therefore also need to be familiar with or trained in the roles of forward observer to ensure accurate communication with artillery units. A further aspect is reconnaissance and intelligence gathering which is a valuable and often typical use of snipers. An illustration of this being the US Marine corps' former designation of some snipers as Surveillance and target acquisition (STA) snipers.
Another aspect requiring training is the identification and selection of the most suitable targets. This allows the sniper to decide which personnel or equipment to target first and how best to disable the targets. Each of these areas of tactics and target selection is described separately further on in the article.
[编辑] Marksmanship
Snipers are trained to squeeze the trigger straight back with the ball of their finger, to avoid jerking the gun sideways. The most accurate position is prone, with a sandbag supporting the stock, and the stock’s cheek-piece against the cheek. In the field, a bipod can be used instead. Sometimes a sling is wrapped around the weak arm (or both) to reduce stock movement. Some doctrines train a sniper to breathe deeply before shooting, then hold their lungs empty while they line up and take their shot. Some go further, teaching their snipers to shoot between heartbeats to minimize barrel motion.
Similarly, a sniper must have the ability to estimate range, wind, elevation, and any other major factors that can affect the trajectory of a bullet.
Snipers zero their telescopic sight and rifle at a specific range, this is the range at which the bullet should impact the same point as the cross hairs indicate on the target. Using this known impact point the sniper can then determine how to compensate for the effects of wind or longer or shorter distances, by knowing the trajectory of his weapons ammunition. The weapon is zeroed regularly to allow for different atmospheric conditions and to ensure it is correct at all times.
Much time is spent training marksmanship skills to snipers so that the sniper can correctly estimate the distance to a target, effectively compensate for atmospheric conditions (e.g. wind, rain, temperature, humidity) and still accurately place a shot at the intended point on the target.
[编辑] US Military
Snipers are volunteers accepted for sniper training on the basis of their aptitude as perceived by their commanders. Military snipers may be trained as FACs (Forward Air Controllers) to direct military air strikes, FOs (Forward Observers) in artillery target indication, and as mortar fire controllers (MFCs). Effective sniping in a military context may necessitate assuming a stationary position for days at a time. Fatigue and muscle stiffness often result from the mandatory immobility. Also, urination and defecation into a bag or other container may become essential. These factors alone contradict much of the glamour portrayed in popular movies.
[编辑] Targeting
The range to the target is measured or estimated as precisely as conditions permit and correct range estimation becomes absolutely critical at long ranges, because a bullet travels with a curved trajectory and the sniper must compensate for this by aiming higher at longer distances. If the exact distance is not known the sniper will compensate incorrectly and the bullet path will be too high or low. As an example, for a typical military sniping cartridge such as 7.62 × 51 mm NATO M118 Special Ball round this difference (or “drop”) between 700 m and 800 m is 8 in (200 mm). This means that if the sniper incorrectly estimated the distance as 700 m when the target was in fact 800 m away, the bullet will be 8 in (200 mm) lower than expected by the time it reaches the target.
Laser range-finders may be used, but are not preferred on the battlefield because a laser can be seen by both the sender and the receiver. One useful method is comparing the height of the target (or nearby objects) to their size on the mil dot scope, or taking a known distance and using some sort of measure (utility poles, fence posts) to determine the additional distance. The average human head is 150 millimeters (6 inches) in width, average human shoulders are 500 mm (20 inches) apart and the average distance from a person’s crotch to the top of their head is 1 meter (39 inches).
To determine the range to a target without a laser rangefinder, the sniper must use the mil dot reticle on a scope to accurately find the range. Mil dots are used like a slide rule to measure the height of a target, and if the height is known, the range can be as well. The height of the target (in yards) ×1000, divided by the height of the target (in mils), gives the range in yards. This is only in general, however, as both scope magnification (7×, 40×) and mil dot spacing change. The USMC standard is that 1 mil (that is, 1 milliradian) equals 3.438 MOA (minute of arc, or, equivalently, minute of angle), while the US Army standard is 3.6 MOA, chosen so as to give a diameter of 1 yard (36 inches) at 1,000 yards. Many commercial manufacturers use 3.5, splitting the difference, since it is easier to work with.
Explanation: 1 MIL = 1 milli-radian. That is, 1 MIL = 1x10^-3 radian. But, 10^-3 rad x (360 deg/ (2 x Pi) radians) = 0.0573 degrees. Now, 1 MOA = 1/60 degree = 0.01667 degrees. Hence, there are 0.0573/0.01667 = 3.43775 MOA per MIL, where MIL is defined as a milli-radian. On the other hand, defining a mil-dot by the US Army way, to equate it to 1 yard at 1000 yards, means the Army's mil-dot is approximately 3.6 MOA.
It is important to note that angular mil (mil) is only an approximation of a milliradian and different organizations use different approximations. Please see three definitions of the angular mil.
At longer ranges, bullet drop plays a significant role in targeting. The effect can be estimated from a chart which may be memorised or taped to the rifle, although some scopes come with Bullet Drop Compensator (BDC) systems that only require the range be dialed in. These are tuned to both a specific class of rifle and specific ammunition. It must be noted that every bullet type and load will have different ballistics. .308 Federal 175 grain (11.3 g) BTHP match shoots at 2,600 ft/s (790 m/s). Zeroed at 100 yards, a 16.2 MOA adjustment would have to be made to hit a target at 600 yards. If the same bullet was shot with 168 grain (10.9 g), a 17.1 MOA adjustment would be necessary.
Shooting uphill or downhill can require more adjustment due to the effects of gravity. Wind also plays a role, the effect increasing with wind speed or the distance of the shot. The slant of visible convections near the ground can be used to estimate crosswinds, and correct the point of aim.
All adjustments for range, wind, and elevation can be performed by “holding over” by eye, also known as Kentucky windage. The most accurate way is called “dialing in” the scope. This adjusts the scope so that the crosshairs point at the target, while also accounting for the effect of the factors above. With precision mechanics, dialing in is more accurate, as the eye can more easily line up and hold the target.
For moving targets, the point of aim is in front of the target. This is known as “leading” the target, where the amount of lead depends on the speed and angle of the target’s movement. For this technique, holding over is the preferred method. Anticipating the behavior of the target is necessary to place the shot accurately.
[编辑] Sniper equipment
The major components of sniper's equipment are the sniper rifle, ammunition and camouflage.
[编辑] Sniper tactics
[编辑] Shot placement
Shot placement varies considerably with the type of sniper being discussed. Military snipers, who generally do not engage targets at less than 300 m (330 yd), usually attempt body shots, aiming at the chest.[來源請求] These shots depend on tissue damage, organ trauma and blood loss to make the kill. Police snipers who generally engage at much shorter distances may attempt head shots to ensure the kill.[來源請求] In instant-death hostage situations, police snipers shoot for the cerebellum,[來源請求] a part of the brain that controls voluntary movement that lies at the base of the skull. Some ballistics and neurological researchers have argued that severing the spinal cord at an area near the second cervical vertebra is actually achieved, usually having the same effect of preventing voluntary motor activity, but the debate on the matter remains largely academic at present. [來源請求]
[编辑] Positioning
To perform civil pacification, sniper-suppression, and intelligence, a sniper or pair of snipers will locate themselves in a high, concealed redoubt. They will use binoculars or a telescope to identify targets, and a radio to provide intelligence.
Snipers use deception, in the form of camouflage, unusual angles of approach, and frequent, often slow movement to prevent accurate counter-attacks. Some snipers are able to shoot an observant target from less than 90 m (98 yd), while the target is searching for them, without being seen.
Military Snipers will aim to find a position giving the largest view of the possible target, while attaining the most natural camoflague and color. This usually means a distance between 300-1000 meters, 600 meters being the optimum range. Contrary to popular opinion, the military sniper will not locate himself in the highest position possible; not only does this make range estimation more difficult due to bullet arc and cosine calculation, it is the most obvious position, both to the sniper and his target. Therefore a Sniper must locate himself in an area that can give him the most possible cover, and allow a shot to go unnoticed. This means either a location behind a solid object, or shooting past one. British sniper tests conducted by Captain Herbert McBride, described how the super-sonic crack of a sniper's bullet, when fired past a solid object, will cause the shot to appear as if it came from that position. In effect, the shock wave would bounce off the object, usually either a building or large tree, and imitate the sound of the gunshot.
Para-Military snipers however, take a slightly different approach. While the Military Sniper concerned mostly with camouflage and concealment, the Para-Military, or Police Sniper is primarily used to attain the largest possible view of the target and his surroundings, as well as to make an incapacitating shot. This means Police snipers will locate themselves much closer to the target, the average shot being 83 meters, to ensure pinpoint accuracy and to deliver Sitrep's (SITuation REPorts) to their commander. Therefore, locating themselves at higher angle, or perch, would not be deemed unacceptable. The military sniper will at all possible times be in a position to kill his possible target. Rarely will there come a time when a police sniper will be able to receive fire from their target and not be able to instantly fire back.
[编辑] Target selection
Snipers can target personnel or materiel, but most often they target the most important enemy personnel such as officers or specialists (e.g. communications operators) so as to cause the maximum disruption of enemy operations. Other personnel they might target include those who pose an immediate threat to the sniper like dog handlers who are often employed in a search for snipers.
A sniper identifies officers by their appearance and behavior such as wearing high-rank uniforms, talking to radio operators, sitting as a passenger in a car, having military servants, or talking and moving position more frequently. If possible, snipers shoot in descending order by rank, or if rank is unavailable, they shoot to disrupt communications.
Since most kills in modern warfare are by crew-served weapons, reconnaissance is one of the most effective uses of snipers. They use their aerobic conditioning, infiltration skills and excellent long-distance observation equipment and tactics to approach and observe the enemy. In this role, their rules of engagement let them engage only high-value targets of opportunity.
With heavy .50 caliber rifles, snipers can shoot turbine disks of parked jet fighters, missile guidance packages, expensive optics, or the bearings, tubes or wave guides of radar sets. Such methods often employ anti-matériel rifles. Similarly, snipers may shoot locks or hinges instead of using a door-opening charge.
[编辑] Psychological warfare
To demoralize enemy troops, snipers can follow predictable patterns. During the Cuban revolutionary war, the 26th of July Movement always killed the foremost man in a group of Batista's soldiers. Realizing this, none of them would walk first, as it was suicidal. This effectively decreased the army's willingness to search for rebel bases in the mountains. An alternative approach is to kill the second man in a row, leading to the psychological effect that nobody will want to follow the "leader" on first position.
The phrase "one shot, one kill" has gained notoriety in popular culture as a glorification of the "sniper mystique." The phrase embodies the sniper's tactics and philosophy of stealth and efficiency. The exact meaning can be explained thus:
- a single round should be fired, avoiding unnecessary and indiscreet firing
- every shot should be accurately placed, resulting in the maximum possible harm to the enemy
Whether the phrase actually reflects reality is of course subject to debate, but it has been widely used in literature and movies.
[编辑] Counter-sniper tactics
The occurrence of sniper warfare has led to the evolution of many counter-sniper tactics in modern military strategies. These aim to reduce the damage caused by a sniper to an army, which can often be harmful to both fighting capabilities and morale. Ultimately, snipers are difficult to stop. However, there are methods available (used individually or in concert) which can be used to make life difficult for them or generally cause hindrance.
The risk of damage to a chain of command can be reduced by removing/concealing features which would otherwise indicate an officer’s rank. Armies nowadays tend to avoid saluting to officers and eliminate rank insignia on their uniforms. Officers can seek maximum cover before revealing themselves as good candidates for sniping through actions like reading maps and using radios.
Friendly snipers are often used to hunt the enemy sniper. Besides direct observation, defending forces can use other techniques. These include calculating the trajectory of a bullet by triangulation. Traditionally, triangulation of a sniper's position was done manually, though radar-based technology has recently become available. Once located, the defenders can try to approach the sniper from cover and overwhelm him. The United States military is funding a project known as RedOwl, which uses laser and acoustic sensors to determine the exact direction from which a sniper round has been fired. The RedOwl system has been tested on the PackBot robot from iRobot.
The more shots a sniper fires, the more chances the defenders have to locate him, so they often try to draw useless shots, sometimes simply by offering a helmet slightly out of concealment. A tactic successfully employed in the Winter War by the Finns is known as "Kylmä-Kalle" (Cold Charlie). They used a shop mannequin or other very human-resembling doll which was dressed as a tempting target, like an officer. The doll was then presented as if it was a real man and sloppily covering himself. Usually, Soviet snipers were unable to resist the temptation of an apparently easy kill. Once the angle where the bullet came from was determined, a shot of a heavy-calibre gun such as a "Norsupyssy" ("Elephant rifle") anti-tank rifle was shot at the sniper's direction to eliminate him.
Other tactics include directing artillery or mortar fire onto suspected sniper positions, the use of smoke-screens, and emplacing tripwire-operated munitions, mines, or other booby-traps near suspected sniper positions. Even dummy trip-wires can be emplaced to inconvenience sniper movement. Where anti-personnel mines are unavailable, it is possible to improvise booby-traps by connecting trip-wires to fragmentation hand-grenades, smoke grenades or flares. Even though these may not kill the sniper, they will reveal his location. Booby-trap devices should be placed close to likely sniper hides or along the probable routes used into and out of the sniper's work area. Knowledge of sniper fieldcraft will assist in this task.
One very old counter-sniper tactic is to tie rags (or similar material) onto bushes or similar items in the danger area. This can be done after dark, when most snipers are no longer working. The rags flutter in the breeze creating random movements in the corner of the sniper's eye, which they find distracting. The main virtue of this distraction tactic is that it is easy to use. However, although this tactic would likely hinder an amateur sniper, it would definitely not stop a trained professional from selecting targets.
Ultimately, sniping and counter-sniping is a constant battle of stealth, guile and countermeasures. Whenever there are new developments on one side, the other will try to find ways to negate them.
[编辑] Snipers in irregular and asymmetric combat
The use of sniping (in the sense of shooting at relatively long range from a concealed position) to murder came to public attention in a number of sensational U.S. cases, including the Austin sniper incident of 1966, the John F. Kennedy assassination, and the Washington sniper serial murders of late 2002. However, these incidents usually do not involve the range or skill of military snipers; in all three cases the perpetrators had US military training, but in other specialties. News reports will often (inaccurately) use the term sniper to describe anyone shooting with a rifle at another person.
Sniping has also been used in irregular and asymmetric warfare situations, for example in the Northern Ireland troubles, where in the early seventies a number of soldiers were shot by concealed riflemen, some at considerable range. There were also a few instances in the early '90s of British soldiers being shot with .50 calibre Barrett rifles. In Northern Ireland, in addition to the uses listed above, a sniper was quite often a form of bait called a "come-on", whereby the sniper's position would be made obvious to a British patrol so as to draw them into an ambush in their attempt to close on the sniper.
The sniper is particularly suited to combat environments where one side is disadvantaged to the other. A careful sniping pattern can leverage a very few individuals and resources to thwart movement or other progress from a much better equipped or larger force.
Because of this perceived difference in force size, the sniping attacks may be viewed as the act of a few persons to terrorize (earning the moniker terrorists) a much larger, regular force — regardless of the size of the force the snipers are attached to.
These perceptions stem from the precept that sniping, while effective in specific instances, is much more effective as a broadly deployed psychological attack (see elsewhere in article).
[编辑] "Sniper" versus "marksman" or "sharpshooter"
Some doctrines distinguish a "sniper" from a "marksman" ("sharpshooter") or "designated marksman". While snipers are intensively trained to master field craft and camouflage, these skills are not necessarily required for sharpshooters. Snipers often perform valuable reconnaissance and have a psychological impact on the enemy. A sharpshooter's role is mainly to extend the reach of the squad to which he is attached.
A sniper also uses intensive training for mastering the art of stealth, concealment, and infiltration for forward placement and surveillance duties, making the role more strategic than a squad-level sharpshooter. Thus, sharpshooters are often attached at the squad level (in the case of squad designated marksmen), while snipers are often attached at higher levels such as battalion. A notable exception to this are "elite" military units such as the 75th Ranger Regiment and United States Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions which utilize snipers at the company level.
The main difference in these two rather different roles are that a sharpshooter is often used in urban areas, where they may work with police or other such law enforcement agencies, while a sniper will work mostly in the field, often in jungle and other well-covered grounds. A sniper is also usually equipped with a highly accurate bolt-action sniper rifle and a pistol (silenced or otherwise) as their sidearm, while a sharpshooter may utilise semi-automatic rifles (not necessarily sniper rifles designed to cover great distances), bolt-action hunting rifles, or even accurate assault rifles (carbines are usually not chosen as they have less accuracy, greater recoil from less weight, and less velocity). As such, a sniper specialises in well-placed single shots, where stealth, timing, and a good choice of target will determine their effectiveness in their use; sharpshooters, on the other hand, are mostly used in hostage and other such police related situations. Sharpshooters work at closer distances, often with the need to place their shots in a far shorter length of time, and often several in quick succession. In addition, because sharpshooters have neither the same degree of surprise or stealth at hand, they are often forced to shoot rapidly moving targets (albeit from shorter distances). With the proliferation of larger caliber weapons, especially .50 sniper rifles, the sniper support may carry an anti-material rifle in addition to his assault rifle, although the weight can be prohibitive.
Most importantly, sharpshooters aren't taught the same level of camouflage and stealth skills which come with the role of a sniper, as these skills are less necessary in both their application and working environs. The distinction is often blurred by sharpshooters such as police marksmen, who often act as the eyes and ears of a situation's response team before entry, or squad designated marksmen, who use their rifle's enhanced optics from covered and concealed positions to provide effective and accurate aimed fire.
[编辑] Selected snipers in history
Even before firearms were available, soldiers such as crossbowmen and archers were specially trained as elite marksmen.
[编辑] Pre 20th century
- Ninja or Shinobi (16th century Japan) – supposedly trained to cover retreating armies, targeting officers from concealed positions. One of Japan's most famous warlords, Takeda Shingen, was reportedly fatally wounded by a sniper's bullet.
- Timothy Murphy – killed British General Simon Fraser during the pivotal Battle of Saratoga, faltering the British advance and causing them to lose the battle.
- Napoleonic Wars – British employed some rifle companies dressed (unsportingly) in green to avoid detection and shoot enemy officers. On ships, sharpshooters were sometimes deployed in fighting tops allowing them to shoot enemy officers, easily distinguished by their gaudy uniforms. Admiral Horatio Nelson died from the wound inflicted by a French sniper during the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.
- British Rifleman Thomas Plunkett (Peninsular war) – shot French General Colbert at a range of between 200 and 600 metres using a Baker rifle.[4]
- Colonel Hiram Berdan (American Civil War) – commanded 1st and 2nd US Sharpshooters and were trained and equipped Union marksmen with the .52 caliber Sharps Rifle. It has been claimed that Berdan's units killed more enemies than any other in the Union Army.
- Sgt. Grace (Battle of Spotsylvania Court House, 1864) – sniped Major General John Sedgwick at the then incredible distance of 730 m (800 yd), with a British Whiteworth target rifle causing administrative delays in the Union's attack, leading to Confederate victory. Sedgwick ignored advice to take cover, his last words according to urban legend being, "They couldn't hit an elephant at this dist-" upon which he was shot. In reality, he was shot a few minutes later.
[编辑] 20th century
- Simo Häyhä (Finland, Winter War/Second World War) – regarded by many as the most effective sniper in the history of warfare, being credited with up to 542 Soviet soldiers using a Model 28 (Finnish variant of the Mosin-Nagant) and iron sights.
- Vasily Zaytsev (Soviet 1047th rifle regiment) (Battle of Stalingrad, Second World War) – credited with sniping 242 German officers and soldiers; subject of the film Enemy at the Gates and the book War of the Rats, both fictionalized accounts.
- Mihail Ilyich Surkov (Soviet 4th rifle division) (Second World War) – credited with sniping 702 German officers and soldiers.
- Fyodor Okhlopkov (Soviet Union, World War II), had 429 confirmed kills, most during the Winter War of World War II.
- Josef 'Sepp' Allerberger (Second World War) was credited with 257 kills on the Eastern Front.
- Lyudmila Pavlichenko (Soviet 54th rifle regiment) (Second World War) – a female sniper with 309 confirmed kills.
- Carlos Hathcock (US Marine Corp, Vietnam War) – achieved 93 confirmed kills. He held the record of longest confirmed kill at a distance of 2,286 meters for 35 years until 2002.
- Chuck Mawhinney (US Marine Corp, Vietnam War), who currently holds the highest number of confirmed kills (103) for any American sniper in history.
- Randy Shughart and Gary Gordon (Battle of Mogadishu, 1993) - U.S. Army/Delta Force snipers who defended the crew of a downed UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter during Operation Gothic Serpent. Both were killed, but their valiant actions saved the life of Mike Durant, the surviving pilot of the Blackhawk. Shughart and Gordon became two of the first American soldiers to posthumously receive the Medal of Honor since the Vietnam War, and their exploits were depicted in the film Black Hawk Down.
[编辑] 21st century
- PPCLI Canadian Soldier Corporal Rob Furlong (Operation Anaconda, Afghanistan) - holds record for the longest-ever recorded and confirmed sniper kill at 2,430 metres (1.5 miles) using a .50 caliber (12.7 mm) McMillan TAC-50 rifle.[5]
- Juba - an alleged sniper involved in the Iraqi insurgency featured in several propaganda videos, in which he is credited to have shot 37 American soldiers. To this day, Juba's existence and true identity remains a mystery.
[编辑] See also
- Special forces
- Jäger (military)
- Adopt a Sniper
- Jack Coughlin
- Carlos Hathcock
- Simo Häyhä
[编辑] External links
[编辑] References
- " Snipers, tireurs d'élite et armes de précision du monde " Edition Mission Spéciale Production. 2006 * [1]
- Plaster, Maj. John (1993). The Ultimate Sniper: An Advanced Training Manual for Military & Police Snipers，Paladin. ISBN 0-87364-704-1.
- Sniper Tactics: Going for the Gun - 於2006January 26zh-tw:造;zh-cn:采訪。
- Law, Clive M. (2005). Without Warning: Canadian Sniper Equipment，Service Publications. ISBN.
- Shore, C. (1988). With British Snipers to the Reich，Lancaster Militaria. ISBN 0-935856-02-1.
- Brooksmith, Peter (2000). Sniper: Training, Techniques and Weapons，St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-26098-9.
- Pegler, Martin (2004). Out of Nowhere: A History of the Military Sniper，Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-854-5.
[编辑] Footnotes
- ↑ The American Civil War Home Page
- ↑ http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&tab=wn&q=civilian+sniper&btnG=Search+News
- ↑ Nick Parker, (a pooled Gulf War correspondent), Royal Marine snipers in Iraq published in The Sun April 2003
- ↑ Stuart Hadaway Rifleman Thomas Plunkett: 'A Pattern for the Battalion.'
- ↑ Friscolanti Michael，We were abandoned，Maclean's，Rogers Publishing，2006-05-15，18-25頁。
[编辑] Further reading
- " SNIPERS, tireurs d'élite et armes de précision du monde " Editions Mission Spéciale Production - 2006
- HowStuffWorks: How Military Snipers Work
- Snipercentral.com
- Russian Snipers of the Great Patriotic War Including High Score lists by Christopher Eger, military historian
--DarkRanger 03:25 2007年2月24日 (UTC)
