Discuter:Éthique
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da:Etik es:Ética fr:Éthique pl:Etyka
Ethics is most often defined as a branch of philosophy which studies questions pertaining to right and wrong, good and bad. Philosophers often call it the "science of morality" and emphasize its empirical character. Non-philosophers usually use or interpret it to refer to elements of professional practice that are part of dispute resolution or which have some great potential for bodily harm: urban planning, medicine, law, politics and theories of civics.
There is some tension between the notion of ethics as seeing, and ethics as doing or solving disputes between those who are doing different things that aren't compatible. It is, for further tension, inseparable from economics in some theories, notably Marxism and social ecology, and from family duties and gender roles in feminism. These are usually now integrated with planet-wide, or "global" issues of human rights and conduct.
Also, ethics is considered a branch of theology, especially in Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, Roman Catholicism and some Fundamentalist Protestant sects. These will be dealt with below after introducing basics:
Sommaire |
[modifier] The first social science
Assumptions about ethical underpinnings of human behaviour are reflected in every social sciences, including: in economics because of its role in the distribution of scarce resources, in political science because of its role in allocating power, in sociology because of its roots in family, in law because of its role in codifying ethical constructs like mercy and punishment, in criminology because of its role in rewarding ethical behaviour and discouraging unethical behaviour, in psychology because of its role in defining, understanding, and treating unethical behaviour or of labelling it madness. It is also important in biology (as bioethics) and ecology (as environmental ethics). As these fields become more complex, and deal with more situations, ethics too tends to become complex.
This article will deal only with the most central and universal and practical questions, linking to more detailed discussions of categories and subtheories.
[modifier] Ethics vs. politics vs. religion vs. practice
Many questions in ethics are deeply concerned with the claiming of rights, especially when authority is present. The potential to invoke authority and force of arms lies heavy over all ethical decisions in all but an anarchy:
When balances between rights are considered, especially in public policy, ethics becomes politics. When religious concepts are considered to dominate over human conceptions of right and wrong, ethics are often presumed to derive from a moral code - usually divinely inspired or revealed. See Ethics in religion below.
Non-philosophers may wish to review the article simple view of ethics and morals, which deals with ethics in much simpler language. That article focuses on how people who make ethical decisions see things, while this one focuses on how people who study ethical decisions see things. The two are typically not the same, as much more doubt and deliberation is involved in coming to agreement about principles that are to apply for a long time or for a whole society, and those who make decisions see things more simply.
In analytic philosophy, ethics is typically broken into at least four sub-disciplines, including meta-ethics and normative ethics which includes value theory, the theory of conduct, and applied ethics - which is seen to be derived, top-down, from normative and thus meta-ethics.
[modifier] Four sources of descriptive ethics
However, some philosophers rely more on descriptive ethics and choices made and unchallenged by a society or culture to derive categories, which typically vary by context - leading to situational ethics and situated ethics. These often view aesthetics and etiquette and arbitration as more fundamental, percolating 'bottom up' to imply, rather than explicitly state, theories of value or of conduct. In these views ethics is not derived from a top-down a priori "philosophy" (many would reject that word) but rather is strictly derived from observations of actual choices made in practice:
- Ethical codes applied by various groups (parties, professions) in society, spiritual advisors, and the implicit and personal choice that defines relationships with nature, e.g. a land ethic, which is also often called an aesthetic - study of which is aesthetics. Some consider aesthetics itself the basis of ethics - and a personal moral core developed through art and storytelling as very influential in one's later ethical choices.
- Informal theories of etiquette which tend to be less rigorous and more situational. Some consider etiquette a simple negative ethics, i.e. where can one evade an uncomfortable truth without doing wrong? One very notable advocate of this view is Judith Martin ("Miss Manners"). In this view, ethics is more a summary of common sense social decisions.
- Practices in arbitration and law, e.g. the claim by Rushworth Kidder that ethics itself is a matter of balancing "right versus right", i.e. putting priorities on two things that are both right, but which must be traded off carefully in each situation. This view many consider to have potential to reform ethics as a practice, but it is not as widely held as the 'aesthetic' or 'common sense' views listed above.
- Observed choices made by ordinary people, without expert aid or advice, who vote, buy and decide what is worth fighting about. This is a major concern of sociology, political science and economics.
Those who embrace such descriptive approaches tend to reject overtly normative ones. There are exceptions, such as the movement to more moral purchasing.
[modifier] The analytic view
The descriptive view of ethics is very modern and in many ways more empirical. But because the above are dealt with more deeply in their own articles, the rest of this article will focus on the formal academic categories, which are derived from Early Greek philosophy, especially Aristotle. It will characterize each of the above variants and related them to the formal 'applied ethics' in the terms that are developed using these terms, which are closely tied up in language. One can almost view normative ethics as part of linguistics:
First, we need to define an "ethical sentence", also called a normative statement. An ethical sentence is one that is used to make either a positive or a negative (moral) evaluation of something. Ethical sentences typically use words such as "good," "bad," "right," "wrong," "moral," "immoral," and so on. Here are some examples:
- "Sally is a good person."
- "People should not steal."
- "The Simpson verdict was unjust."
- "Honesty is a virtue."
In contrast, a non-ethical sentence would be a sentence that does not serve to (morally) evaluate something. Examples would include:
- "Sally is a tall person."
- "Someone took the stereo out of my car."
- "Simpson was acquitted at his trial."
[modifier] Four branches of ethics
Now let's look at the four branches of ethics mentioned above.
1. Meta-ethics studies the nature of ethical sentences and attitudes. This includes such questions as what "good" and "right" mean, whether and how we know what is right and good, whether moral values are objective, and how ethical attitudes motivate us. Often this is derived from some list of moral absolutes, e.g. a religious moral code, whether explicit or not. Some would view aesthetics as itself a form of meta-ethics.
2. The theory of value, asks: "What sorts of things and situations are good?" For example, the following would be questions in the theory of value: "Is pleasure always good?", "Is it good, ceteris paribus, for people to be equally well-off?", "Is it intrinsically good for beautiful objects to exist?" If value can be quantified at all, it is implied that tradeoffs are at least possible - Kidder would say implied.
3. The theory of conduct studies, on a general level, what sorts of actions are morally wrong, permissible, obligatory, and supererogatory (beyond the call of duty). So theories of conduct propose standards of morality, or moral codes or rules. For example, the following would be the sort of rules that a theory of conduct would discuss (though different theories will differ on the merit of each of these particular rules): "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"; "The right action is the action that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number"; "Stealing is wrong." Here is where it is difficult to distinguish a theory from practice of etiquette.
4. Applied ethics applies ethical theories to particular ethical problems. Many of these ethical problems bear directly on public policy. For example, the following would be questions of applied ethics: "Is getting an abortion ever moral?"; "Is euthanasia ever moral?"; "What are the ethical underpinnings of affirmative action policies?"; "Do animals have rights?" Without these questions there is no clear fulcrum on which to balance law, politics, and practice of arbitration - in fact no common assumptions of all participants - so the ability to formulate the questions are prior to rights balancing.
But not all questions studied in applied ethics concern public policy. For example: Is lying always wrong? What about blaming? If not, when is it permissible? Clearly, it is permissible in some situations, at least by default, as research in anthropology shows that humans typically lie several times per day. Underlying patterns must somehow be detected by ourselves before we decide how truthful to be - else we could not manage the many and varying situations outlined in any social etiquette - so the ability to make these ethical judgements is prior to any etiquette.
[modifier] Applied analytic ethics
There are several sub-branches of applied ethics examining the ethical problems of different professions, such as business ethics, medical ethics, engineering ethics and legal ethics, while technology assessment and environmental assessment study the effects and implications of new technologies or projects on nature and society.
Each branch to characterize common issues and problems that arise in the ethical codes of the professions, and define their common responsibility to the public, e.g. to preserve its natural capital, or to obey some social expectations of honest dealings and disclosure.
[modifier] Ethics by cases
By far the most common way to approach applied ethics is by resolving individual cases. This is, not coincidentally, also the way business and law tend to be taught. Casuistry is one such application of case-based reasoning to applied ethics.
Bernard Crick in 1982 offered a more socially-centered view, that politics was the only applied ethics, that it was how cases were really resolved, and that "political virtues" were in fact necessary in all matters where human morality and interests were destined to clash. This and other views of modern universals is dealt with below under Global Ethics.
[modifier] Is ethics futile?
The whole assumption of the field of ethics is that consistent description, consistent deliberation, and consistent and fair application of authority is possible. However, the more case-based views seem to suggest that a great deal of judgement is required, and that for instance one could never train a robot to do ethics, as it requires empathy and wisdom.
Is each case unique? Possibly. The view that ethics is innate and tied to a personal moral core or aesthetics is harder to relate to the formal categories above other than as a meta-ethics in itself.
It is considered by some ethicists to be just a variant of mysticism or narcissism, permitting those who avow aesthetic choices as being 'above ethics' to justify anything.
However, the term ethics is actually derived from the ancient Greek ethos, meaning moral character. Mores, from which morality is derived, meant social rules or etiquette or inhibitions from the society. In modern times, these meanings are often somewhat reversed, with ethics being the external "science" and morals referring to one's inmost character or choices. But it is significant that the origins of the words reflect the tension between an inner-driven and an outer-driven view of what makes moral choices consistent.
[modifier] Ethics in religion
The classical Greek and Roman notions of ethics heavily influenced the Greek and Latin language in which such notions were universally debated in the Mediterranean world until the Renaissance. Plato and Aristotle introduced a great deal of ethical terminology which remains current today.
The ethical traditions of Stoicism and the cultural norms of the Celts and other prominent peoples such as the ancient Egyptians played a major role in the early evolution of classical European ethics and religion.
Those traditions are not however practiced exclusively today, so they are not dealt with within this article, except for their influence on other traditions. Of which the most notable is:
[modifier] The Judeo-Christian tradition
Early Christian ethics evolved entirely under the Roman Empire within its systems of law. Christians eventually took over the Empire itself, retaining all of its forms. This success seemed to validate both the faith and the imperialism which retained its power. Augustine adapted Plato, and later, after the Islamic transmission of his works, Aquinas adapted Aristotle, to Christian norms.
Western philosophical works on ethics were (and many still are) written in a culture whose literary and religious ideas were based in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) and the New Testament chronicling the teachings of Jesus. Along with the imperial tradition, this had a profound and undisputed effect on categories, rules of procedure, and all practices that were defined in Europe and enforced on North America via colonialism.
In some ways the futility question is illustrated well by this situation: as Catholic philosophers debated and deplored the rape and extermination and enslavement of the peoples of the New World, it continued without limit, especially in South America, often with the participation of the Church. Of course, it very often protected native converts and shielded them from harm, where it could. See Roman Catholicism's relations with governments. A particularly harsh critic, Friedrich Nietzsche, called the Christian ethics a "slave ethics" for counselling submission to enslavers, invaders, authority.
This reflects the reality that even millenia later, a deep connection exists between the ethics of the Bible and the ethics of the great western philosophers. As Nietzsche's example shows, this is not always a direct connection - it may be reactive or even dismissive. However, even among religious scholars, significant differences of opinion in the applicability, or how to interpret and apply passages in the books of the Bible lead to different understandings of ethics. Thus, one should not expect to find any direct correlation between Biblical ethics and post-Enlightenment philosophical study of ethics, nor should one find no correlation at all, either. Ethics in the Bible is a survey of ethics in the Hebrew Bible and in the New Testament.
The Mussar Movement is a Jewish movement to revive this scholarly tradition. There is also a distinct modern study of ethics from the Bible which are not there directly stated, but implied or suggested. See the article on Genesis of Ethics for this view, and the section below on Global Ethics.
Christian ethics in general has tended to stress grace, mercy, and forgiveness, and doubt in human (as opposed to divine) judgement. It also codified the Seven Deadly Sins. For more see Christian philosophy.
[modifier] The Hindu tradition
In India, the riot of stories and colourful gods and goddesses in Hinduism could be interpreted with a wide variety of ethical meanings.
However, some universal principles of ethics are clearly visible in Hindu traditions. Of all religions, Hinduism is among the most compatible with the view of approaching truth through various forms of art: its temples are often garishly decorated, and the idea of a guru who is both entrancing entertainer and spiritual guide, or who simply practices some unique devotion (such as holding up his arm right for his whole life, or rolling on the ground for years on a pilgrimage), is simply accepted as a legitimate choice in life.
Ethical traditions in Hindusm have been heavily influenced by caste norms. In the mid-20th century, Mohandas Gandhi, a Jain, undertook to reform these and emphasize traditions shared in all the Indian faiths:
- vegetarianism and an ideology of harms reduction leading ultimately to nonviolence
- active creation of truth through courage and his 'satyagraha'
- rejection of cowardice and concern with pain or indeed bodily harm
After his profound achievement of forcing the British Empire from India, these views spread widely and influence much modern thinking on ethics today, especially in the peace movement, ecology movement, and those devoted to social activism.
Many New Age traditions also derive from his thought and other Hindu traditions such as acceptance of reincarnation, which is a way of expressing the need for reciprocity, as one may end up in someone else's shoes "in a future life". However Hindu beliefs may help excuse not helping someone in distress, due to both fatalism and the teaching that one deserve's the life one gets. In part to compensate for this, a cardinal virtue in Hindusim is kindness.
More emphasis is placed on empathy than in other traditions, and women are sometimes upheld not only as great moral examples but also as great gurus. An emphasis on domestic life and the joys of the household and village may make Hindu ethics a bit more conservative than others on matters of sex and family.
[modifier] The Buddhist tradition
Gautama Buddha adopted some elements of Hindu practices, notably meditation and (within limits) vegetarianism. Like Aristotle among the Greeks, who emphasized a "Golden Mean" or moderate choice in ethical matters, the Buddha advised moderation in all things, even moderation itself.
The Noble Eightfold Path is (except perhaps for understanding the Four Noble Truths, that being the first step on it) quite self-explanatory and still serves as the most important guide to Buddhist ethics.
Calm is a cardinal virtue of Buddhism, and is believed to lead to enlightenment.
[modifier] The Chinese tradition
In China, the defining ethical figures are Confucius, Buddha, Lao Zi, Sun Yat-Sen and Mao Zedong. Their influence was so profound, especially that of Confucius, that it is not reasonable to think of any Chinese ethical tradition without giving their ideals full weight. Of these, the earliest and most long-lasting influence was clearly that of Confucius, who in many ways defined everything that is today thought of as uniquely "Chinese":
Confucius stressed honesty above all. His concepts of li, yi and ren can be seen as deeper expressions of honesty, and fidelity to the ones to whom one (honestly) owed one's existence (parents) and survival (one's neighbours, colleagues, inferiors in rank). He codifed traditional practice and actually changed the meaning of the prior concepts that those words had meant. His model of the Confucian family and Confucian ruler dominated Chinese life into the early 20th century. This had ossified by then into an Imperial hierarchy of rigid property rights, hard to distinguish from any other dictatorship. Traditional ethics had been perverted by legalism.
Taoism and Buddhism played major roles also in Chinese ethics. See the Three Vinegar Tasters.
When the Dynasty fell, Sun Yat-Sen, a Nationalist Chinese reformer who introduced the modern notions of ethics and democracy. He remains the only 20th-century figure respected by Nationalist, Communist and modernizers.
Mao Zedong combined these with the Marxist-Leninist emphasis on the role of economics in determing ethical relations. His Quotations of Chairman Mao were mandatory reading, and perhaps a billion copies are in existence. He emphasized the relation between power and the "mass line" of choices made by ordinary people in real life. Maoism is not very popular today, but his absolute rule of China made it impossible to avoid this strict bottom-up, agrarian, concept of ethics. In practice, of course, power flowed from the top. Ethical discourses are still viewed with suspicious in most of China today, as the behaviour of power seems rarely to be actually motivated by ethical norms.
Still, honesty and fidelity remain central to Chinese ethical thought. Mao is poorly remembered less for his brutality than for not doing as he said.
[modifier] The Islamic tradition
Islam is monoetheistic and emphasizes submission to Allah (God). It sees all of natural law, including that revealed by science, as an aspect of that law. Indeed, everything in the universe "is Muslim" but does not necessarily know it. This tradition gave rise to most of modern science.
Muhammad founded a tradition of ethics built on knowledge and the active investigation of alternatives, the "ijtihad". Early Muslim philosophy applied it with decreasing diligence, eventually ossifying into a legal code, the fiqh, that served the purposes of the Ottoman Empire. A five-century gap followed while ethics as such was seen only as blind mimicry, or taqlid, using these traditional schools and categories. The hadith, the sayings of Muhammad, filled a popular role in ordinary ethical disputes, and in the mosque where they were usually resolved by a shaikh ("judge").
The Shia branch of Islam built a hierarchy and rigid ethical codes, while Sunni Islam did not, and relied much more on local figures and traditions. It is critically important in Islam to develop an al-urf, or "custom", to adapt Islam to local conditions, leading to situated ethics.
Also important is neighbourliness and khalifa, or "stewardship" as a a land ethic. This tradition continues in modern Islamic philosophy.
[modifier] The Animist traditions
Shinto and many Animist, shaman and aboriginal religions (and also to a degree Taoism) share certain common traits that influence their view of ethics and dispute resolution. Among these are a ritualization of sex and food and territory and rank relationships that might lead to conflict if not appropriately anticipated and managed. This can be considered a sort of "pre-emptive ethics" which separates people or concerns liable to come into conflict, at the expense of dogma which is sometimes insensible, but rarely relevant to make actual decisions.
Proponents of these traditions often claim that they have the ability to actually transform conflict, say to turn what might otherwise be a fight into a dance, with strong social support for such a ritual. In many of these traditions, to shun or exile offenders is the most serious penalty:
Given the relatively loose controls on movement in many tribal cultures, offenders were free to find another village where some more compatible set of ethics is practiced, and where they were less likely to come into conflict. A highly mobile modern technological society offers some similar potentials.
[modifier] Global ethics
The last half of the 20th century was a time of serious fusion of ethical ideas from all over the world. There was literally no choice, as traditions and cultures were so seriously clashing as to create such global conflicts as World War II and the Cold War - threatening human existence itself.
[modifier] Ecumenism
The ecumenical movement had begun to unite Catholic and Protestant thinkers but eventually grew to include first Jewish, then Islamic, then every other tradition. The Parliament of World Religions seek what it calls a "Global Ethic" which would incorporate the best analytic, social and religious norms into a single expression of goodness which can be agreed by all peoples.
[modifier] Psychology
By the 1960s, also there was renewed interest in moral reasoning. Psychologists Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Lawrence Kohlberg, Carol Gilligan and others began to seriously codify rational ethics, relationship ethics and try to express, as Confucius had, some universal levels of moral awareness and capacity. It became obvious that some viewed rational principles as 'higher' than relationships, but others did not:
Marxism, Feminism and Queer studies have also have much influence on the study of modern universals and how they are derived from relationships. Feminism for instance focuses on the universal experience of motherhood and resolution of sibling rivalry. Ethical lessons are drawn from weaning, toilet training, and similar universal experiences of first love, eventual alienation, work.
[modifier] Politics
Often, such efforts take legal or political form before they are understood as works of normative ethics. The UN Declaration of Universal Human Rights of 1948 and the Global Green Charter of 2001 are two such examples.
However, as war and the development of weapon technology continues, it seems clear that no non-violent means of dispute resolution is accepted by all.
The need to redefine and align politics away from ideology and towards dispute resolution was a motive for Bernard Crick's list of political virtues.
[modifier] Ecology
A key trend in global ethics is to incorporate ecology and economics into a single structure where resource extraction, consumption, use, waste disposal and downstream consequences (for say environmental health) are taken as the basis for all ethical decisions. This has led to the theories of environmental ethics, Ecological Footprint, bioregional autonomy, animal rights and their integration into an integrated Gaia philosophy.
Increasingly, these also influence theories of civics: bioregional democracy, social ecology, eco-feminism, eco-anarchism, and the green movement.
One way to summarize these is to say that the material limits of Earth, it's carrying capacity in particular, alters what is right and wrong as they are approached. Deep ecology is a quite complete expression of that idea but is considered very radical: In effect, it argues that humans must do what is good for the Earth's biosphere not what is good for humans. Only by doing so can they survive. There is some basis for this in biology which often observes that animals tend to compete more with their own species than with all others - thus, to wait until all disputes between humans are settled before dealing with their overconsumption and waste, and such matters as biodiversity, can only guarantee disaster. It is only effective to start with the biosphere and reduce conflict by making it richer, or humans less numerous.
[modifier] Ethics without politics
Of course, ecology and biology are sciences, as is chemistry on which they are based. So to view these as an objective basis for ethics may be seen, by the optimist, as a first step to a formal method for evaluating and quantifying ethicality and morality of human actions. However, the idea of making ethics a numerical "hard science" is unusual and elusive - it will not replace politics and conventional ethics any time soon. Some view such attempts to integrate ethics using science and mathematics as a plain play for authority: scientism.
Ethics will probably always involve many debates, not all of which can be resolved by referring to empirical evidence, and some of which will always require difficult choices, and thus to bring people into serious conflict.
[modifier] Related Topics (in philosophy)
See the list of ethics topics for more specialized and applied topics.
See the list of ethicists for theorists who have contributed to the above ideas.
j'aime assez cette version. J'essaierais de la traduire petit à petit. D'autres sont les bienvenus pour participer et apporter leur pierre à l'édifice. Thème riche en enseignement. Anthere
[[Utilisateur:Doud|doud • ¿]] 6 nov 2004 à 09:06 (CET) je m'étais moi attaché à la dernière version anglaise pour commencer ma traduction (en:Ethics), mais je n'ai plus le temps de continuer ni trop la motivation, donc voici mon brouillon (quasiment mot à mot ;) de ce que j'avais fait jusqu'ici :
L'éthique désigne généralement la morale. En philosophie, une méthode éthique est ce qui est «bon». Dans la perspective occidentale traditionnelle, l'éthique est parfois appellée philosophie morale. C'est l'une des trois branches de la philosophie, à côté de la métaphysique et de la logique.
[modifier] Historique
Les études officielles en éthique d'un sens rigoureux et analytique commencèrent avec les philosohpes de la Grèce antique, et plus tard chez les Romains. Dans les grands éthicistes grecs sont compris les sophistes, Socrate, Platon et Aristote qui ont développé le naturalisme éthique. L'étude de l'éthique à été approfondie par Épicure et ses disciples, ainsi que par Zeno et les stoïciens.
Bien que non développé dans un sens rigoureux, l'éthique fut une grande discipline chez les Hindous de l'Inde antique ; ils ont décrit les premiers les bases de l'éthique, appellées éthique absolue par Albert Schweitzer. Mille ans plus tard, la Société des Amis ou les Quakers sont arrivés aussi haut que ces Jinas indiens.
En Europe, la philosophie stagna jausqu'aux Maimonides, Thomas d'Aquin et d'autres. C'est à ce moment que le débat entre loi de la nature et loi divine prit de l'importance.
La philosophie occidentale moderne commença réellement avec les travaux de Thomas Hobbes, David Hume et Emmanuel Kant, et continua avec leurs successeurs : Jérémy Benthan, John Stuart Mill et les "utilitarians". On peut citer aussi Arthur Schopenhauer à cause de son "Preisschrift über die Grundlage der Moral". Il fut le premier européen à débuter à partir des réalisations de l'Inde antique. L'éthique analytique arrive avec G. E. Moore et W.D. Ross, suivits par les émotivistes C.L. Stevenson et A.J. Ayer. L'existentialisme se développe lui autour d'intellectuels comme Jean-Paull Sartre. John Rauls, Elliot N. Dorff, Jürgen Habermas, Christine Korsgaard et Charles Hartshorne comptent parmis les plus célèbres des philosophes modernes travaillant sur l'éthique.
[modifier] Controverses
On compte jusqu'ici au moins cinq voies bien définies :
- les philosophes appellent souvent l'éthique la "science de la moralité" et insistent sur sa nature empirique ;
- les théologiens considèrent l'éthique comme une branche de leur domaine, surtout dans le judaïsme, le bouddhisme, l'Islam, le catholicisme et quelques sectes protestantes fondamentalistes ;
- l'éthique est inséparable de l'économie selon certaines théories, notament le marxisme et la "social" ecology", ainsi que le féminisme et le genre chez le mouvement Queer. Ces points de vue sont développés pour représenter les parias dont le status s'est dégradé dans l'éthique traditionnelle ;
- les professionels se servent souvent de l'éthique pour désigner des éléments contestés ou qui seraient potentiellement dangereux pour autrui : urbanisme, médecine, législation, politique et civisme ;
- la cinquième voie découle des théories de non-violence, de pacifisme et d'anarchisme ;
- enfin, parfois, l'éthique est simplement perçue comme la médiation et la disjonction d'un conflit.
Reprise de traduction anglaise en cours.
Pautard 18 janvier 2006 à 16:47 (CET)
[modifier] Lien externe mort
Bonjour,
Pendant plusieurs vérifications automatiques, un lien était indisponible. Merci de vérifier si il est bien indisponible et de le remplacer par une version archivée par Internet Archive si c'est le cas. Vous pouvez avoir plus d'informations sur la manière de faire ceci ici. Merci également de vérifier que d'autres liens de l'article ne sont pas morts. Les erreurs rapportées sont :
- http://www.hazlitt.org/e-texts/morality/
- Dans Henry Hazlitt, le Sun Jan 22 16:24:10 2006, 404 Not Found
- Dans Éthique, le Mon Jan 23 03:55:37 2006, 404 Not Found
▪ Eskimbot ☼ 23 janvier 2006 à 06:51 (CET)
Bonjour,
je souhaite attirer l'attention des rédacteurs principaux de cet article sur les travaux d'Edgar Morin et plus particulièrement son essai intitulé "Ethique", 6ème tome d'une oeuvre intelectuelle intitulée "la méthode".
Lire la chronique de Philippe Lemaire:
http://nouvellerevuemoderne.free.fr/edgarmorin_ethique.htm
Bien fraternellement
PL ;-)-
[modifier] Remarques
J'ai refait l'introduction et je l'ai coupée en deux pour gagner en article. J'ai aussi enlevé tous les ajouts de 86.211.163.3 qui soit n'avaient pas de sens, soit étaient des commentaires digne d'un potache.Apierrot 14 août 2006 à 19:31 (CEST)
[modifier] Histoire de l'éthique
J'ai créé cet article "Histoire de l'éthique car
- ce thème me semble bien mériter un traitement à part vue son importance
- l'article éthique dans son état actuel est très, très long
- d'autres articles (comme par exemple Métaphysique et Histoire de la métaphysique) ont effectué une telle division. J'ai suivi cet exemple. Apierrot 15 août 2006 à 21:13 (CEST)
[modifier] Ethique théologique
Bonjour, je me pose des questions sur la partie "éthique théologique". Ne s'agirait-il pas plutôt d'une "éthique téléologique" ? Quelqu'un peut-il m'éclairer sur le sens de mon erreur si c'en est une?
Cordialement, François Requet
[modifier] Non-éthique?
J'aimerais bien savoir l'équivalent du mot anglais «unethical» (torture is unethical / la torture est non-éthique). «C'est pas éthique!» ou «C'est non-éthique!» roulent mal sur le bout de la langue, alors je me demandais si il avais un mot plus approprié (immoral n'est pas bon car l'éthique et la morale c'est différent). Merci --Natipyta 15 décembre 2006 à 22:44 (CET)
[modifier] Révision du plan sur l'éthique appliquée
Je pense nécessaire de faire apparaître l'éthique du développement durable sous ses angles social et environnemental. D'autre part, j'ai ajouté en bibliographie un livre d'Emmanuel Lévinas, ce qui me semble indispensable sur un tel sujet. J'ai ajouté également un paragraphe sur l'éthique du métier d'historien. Pautard 22 mars 2007 à 18:33 (CET)
Catégories : Article très consulté d'avancement inconnu • Article très consulté d'importance élevée • Article Philosophie d'avancement inconnu • Article Philosophie d'importance inconnue • Article junior d'avancement inconnu • Article junior d'importance élevée • Junior article • Article à traduire • Article à traduire/en
