Graham's number

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Graham's number, named after Ronald Graham, is often described as the largest number that has ever been seriously used in a mathematical proof. It is too large to be written in scientific notation so it needs special notation to write down. Graham's number is much larger than other well known large numbers such as a googol and a googolplex, and even larger than Moser's number, another well-known large number.

1 Graham's problem
2 Definition of Graham's number
- 2.1 Magnitude of Graham's number
3 See also
4 References
5 External links

[edit] Graham's problem

Graham's number is connected to the following problem in the branch of mathematics known as Ramsey theory:

Consider an n-dimensional hypercube, and connect each pair of vertices to obtain a complete graph on

2 n

vertices. Then colour each of the edges of this graph using only the colours red and black. What is the smallest value of n for which every possible such colouring must necessarily contain a single-coloured complete sub-graph with 4 vertices that lies in a plane?

Although the solution to this problem is not yet known, Graham's number is the smallest known upper bound. This bound was found by Graham and B. L. Rothschild (see (GR), corollary 12). They also provided the lower bound 6, adding the qualified understatement: "Clearly, there is some room for improvement here."

In Penrose Tiles to Trapdoor Ciphers, Martin Gardner wrote, "Ramsey-theory experts believe the actual Ramsey number for this problem is probably 6, making Graham's number perhaps the worst smallest-upper-bound ever discovered." More recently Geoff Exoo of Indiana State University has shown (in 2003) that it must be at least 11 and provided evidence that it is larger.

[edit] Definition of Graham's number

Graham's number G is a member of the following recursively defined sequence defined, with the help of Knuth's up-arrow notation $\uparrow$ , as follows:

Let

$g_1=3\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow\uparrow 3$

and

$g_n = 3\uparrow^{g_{n-1}}3$ .

In this sequence, Graham's number is g₆₄.

Equivalently, define f(n) = hyper(3,n+2,3) = 3→3→n, then, using functional powers, G=f ⁶⁴(4).

Graham's number G itself cannot succinctly be expressed in Conway chained arrow notation, but $3\rightarrow 3\rightarrow 64\rightarrow 2 < G < 3\rightarrow 3\rightarrow 65\rightarrow 2$ , see bounds on Graham's number in terms of Conway chained arrow notation.

[edit] Magnitude of Graham's number

Since appreciation of the true size of Graham's number can be difficult, it can be helpful to express the first term of the sequence in terms of exponentiation:

$g_1 = 3 \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 3 = 3 \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow (3 \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 3) = 3 \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow \left( \begin{matrix} \underbrace{3^{3^{\cdot^{\cdot^{\cdot^{3}}}}}} & \ \\ 3^{3^3} & \text{threes} \end{matrix} \right) = \left. \begin{matrix} \underbrace{3^{3^{\cdot^{\cdot^{\cdot^{3}}}}}} & \ \\ \underbrace{3^{3^{\cdot^{\cdot^{\cdot^{3}}}}}} & \text{threes} \\ \vdots & \vdots \\ \underbrace{3^{3^{\cdot^{\cdot^{\cdot^{3}}}}}} & \text{threes} \\ 3^{3^3} & \text{threes} \\ \end{matrix} \right \} \begin{matrix} \ & \ \\ \underbrace{3^{3^{\cdot^{\cdot^{\cdot^{3}}}}}} & \mbox{ layers} \\ 3^{3^3} & \text{ threes} \end{matrix}$

Note that $3^{3^3} = 3^{27} = 7{,}625{,}597{,}484{,}987$ .

This first term, g₁, is already inconceivably greater than the number of atoms in the observable universe, and grows at an enormous rate as it is iterated through the sequence g.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

Gardner, Martin (1989). Penrose Tiles to Trapdoor Ciphers. ISBN 0-88385-521-6.
Graham, R. L.; Rothschild, B. L. (1971). "Ramsey's Theorem for n-Parameter Sets". Transactions of the American Mathematical Society 159: 257-292.