Iran-India relations

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Iran-India relations

Iran	India

India and Iran have had close relations since ancient times. Ethnically, the Indo-Aryan peoples of the Indian subcontinent and the Iranian peoples of the Iranian plateau (Persia) are descended from the same Proto-Indo-Iranian group of people. Over several millennia, both civilizations have interacted with each other politically, scientifically, linguistically and culturally.

Contents 1 History 1.1 Pre-Aryan civilizations 1.2 Pre-Islamic Persia and Vedic civilization era 1.2.1 Achaemenid Period and Seleucid Empire 1.2.2 Parthian and Sassanid Periods 1.2.3 Buddhist influence in Pre-Islamic Persia 1.3 Islamic Persia and India 1.3.1 Islamic conquest of Persia and Pre-Sultanate Period in India 1.3.2 Islamic Sultanate dynasties in India 1.3.3 Mughal-Safavid Period 2 Current relations 2.1 Economic relations 2.2 India's nuclear vote against Iran 3 References 4 Further reading 5 See also 6 Links

[edit] History

[edit] Pre-Aryan civilizations

The Indus Valley (Harappan) civilization, which is the oldest historically known culture in ancient India, was contemporary with the Proto-Elamite and Elamite civlizations in ancient Iran. The Indus people had trade links with parts of Afghanistan, the coastal regions of Iran, and the ancient civilization of Mesopotamia. At Susa in the western part of Iran, decorated pottery has been excavated which appears to be similar to those of the Kulli culture in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. Indus seals have also been excavated at Kish, Sura and Ur. The Harappan culture in India is believed to have imported silver, copper, turquoise and lapis lazuli from Persia and Afghanistan, in return for ivory. In terms of linguistics, it has been theorized that the Indus people spoke a Dravidian language, and this language or its variants must have also spread to neighbouring areas: in the Balochistan region in the southeast of Iran and in the southwest of Pakistan, the Brahui people speak a language that is classified under the Dravidian family.^[1] The Elamo-Dravidian languages is a hypothetical language family that includes the ancient Elamite language of Iran and the Dravidian languages of the Indian subcontinent, suggesting a possible linguistic relationship between the Elamites and Harappans before the arrival of Indo-Iranians.

[edit] Pre-Islamic Persia and Vedic civilization era

The languages of India belonging to the Indo-Aryan family are believed to have originated from the same source as the Iranian languages, namely the Indo-Iranian language family, which in itself is a member of the Satem group of Indo-European languages. The Indo-Iranians were nomadic people originating from the Central Asian steppes, probably in the region of the Oxus river valley, pre-2000 BCE. They referred to themselves as Aryans, from which the word "Iran" originates (from airyanam vaejo meaning "Land of the Aryans"), and also the word Arya in Sanskrit and other Indian languages, signifying "noble". Ancient India was also referred to as aryavarta, which means the same as "kingdom/domain of the Aryans".^[2]

Aryan civilization first entered the north-west of India probably around 2000 BCE. The Aryans brought with them the patrilinear system, the worship of sky gods and the use of horses and the chariot. Vedic civilization began in India around 1500 BC, with the Rigveda being the oldest of the Vedas. The Rigveda was told in Vedic Sanskrit, which is very similar to Avestan, the ancient language in which the Persian Zoroastrian sacred text Avesta was written. The Vedas and the Avesta appear to agree that the Aryans migrated from their original homeland due to a "flood" of some kind. In the Vedic account, the flood was of water, while the Avesta indicates that it was of snow and frost. The survivor of this flood, Manu Satyavrata is considered to be the progenitor of the Aryans in India, according to Vedic scripture. The story has obvious parallels with the Semitic account of the Great Flood and the emergence of Noah. According to the traditions of the Vendidad, Aryans lived in fifteen nations, one of these being Haptahindu, which is the Avestan form of the Sanskrit Saptasindhu, meaning "seven rivers" and referring to the region of the Indian subcontinent.^[3] Ancient Vedic religion and Zoroastrianism also have much else in common. The Vedas and the Gathas of the Avesta include fire worship, the performance of sacrifice (Sanskrit yajna or Avestan yasna) and the importance of priests or Magi. The myths that appear in the Yasht part of the Avesta probably have their roots in ancient Indo-Iranian culture.^[4]

[edit] Achaemenid Period and Seleucid Empire

The emergence of the Achaemenid empire in Persia, founded by Hakhāmaniš (Sakhamani in Sanskrit, meaning "one with friends or allies") saw parts of northwest India come under Persian rule. Indian emissaries were present at the courts of Cyrus the Great or Kurush (590 BCE - 529 BCE), whose empire extended as far east as Gandhara and Sind. It is also believed that when Cyrus was threatened by Croesus of Lydia, he received military assistance from an Indian king.^[5] Under Darius I or Darayawus (521 BCE - 485 BCE), there were inscriptions referring to Persian relations with India. The Behistun rock inscription (ancient Bagastana "place of Gods" or Sanskrit Bhagasthana) dating back to around 518 BCE includes Gandhara in the list of his subject countries. Here Darius also refers to his language as Aryan. The Persepolis inscription mentions Punjab as a part of the Persian empire. The epigraph of Nagsh-i-Rustam shows India as the 24th state of his empire. The Indian province of Darius was believed to be the richest in Darius's empire. Herodotus tells us of the wealth and density of the Indian population and of the tribute paid to Darius:
The population of the Indians is by far the greatest of all the people that we know; and they paid tribute proportionately larger than all the rest – (the sum of) 360 talents of gold dust.
Herodotus also mentions the Indian contingent in the Persian armies consisting of infantry, cavalry, and chariots. Later, elephants are also mentioned.^[6] Under Xerxes I or Khashayarsha, the successor of Darius, it is believed that Indians (specifically from north-west India, Bactria and Gandhara) fought alongside the Persian army against the Greeks in the battlefields of Plataea and Marathon.^[7]

Achaemenian art and architecture also had a significant influence on India. Before the Ashokan period of history, there is not much evidence of epigraphy in India. It has been suggested that the idea of issuing decrees by Ashoka was borrowed from the Achaemenian emperors, especially from Darius. The pillars, with their animal capitals (fine examples of Mauryan imperial art), are influenced by Achaemenian pillars.^[8] The use of this means of propagating official messages and the individual style of the inscriptions both suggest Persian and Hellenistic influence.

Trade expanded mainly because Achaemenians introduced coinage, which facilitated exchange. India exported spices like black pepper and imported gold and silver coins from Iran.^[9] The grape, introduced from Persia with the almond and walnut, was cultivated in the western Himalayas.^[10] One of the earliest Indian words for a coin is Karsa (also a small weight), which is of Persian origin.^[11]

According to Herodotus, Artaxerxes or Artakshathra exempted the inhabitants of four Babylonian villages from taxation in return for their breeding Indian dogs for hunting and war. The dog is only once mentioned with respect in ancient Indian literature and was rarely, if ever, treated as a pet. The exception occurs in the Mahabharata, when the five Pandavas and their wife Draupadi take their dog with them on their final pilgrimage to heaven, and the eldest brother Yudhisthira refuses to enter without his faithful friend. It has been suggested that the episode shows Iranian influence, because for the Zoroastrians, the dog was a sacred animal.^[12]

In 330 BCE, Alexander the Great defeated Darius III. In the decisive battle of Gaugamela, Indian soldiers with fifteen elephants fought with Darius against the Greeks.^[13] Alexander marched into India after defeating the Persians. Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the Mauryan dynasty, had friendly relations with the successor of the Macedonian conqueror in Persia. Seleucus Nicator, the Grecian ruler of Persia, sent Megasthenes as the envoy of Hellenistic Persia to the court of Pataliputra in India, the seat of the Mauryas. Persian nobles were also present in the courts of Mauryan kings. Tushaspa, a Persian, was present during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. The Kharoshti script was introduced by the Persian officials in the northwestern frontier province and continued to be in use till the 4th century CE.^[14]

[edit] Parthian and Sassanid Periods

The Parthian empire was actively involved in cultural and commercial interactions with India. In later Parthian times, the borderland areas of Kabul, Kandahar and Seistan, which formed part of Gandhara, were also referred to as "white India".^[15] The name "Gujarat", the region in western India, is associated with the Gujjar tribe that were partly descended from the Indo-Scythians or Sakas who were Iranian peoples, and fought against the Parthian Empire.^[16] The history of Gujarat from 78 CE to 400 CE is sometimes shown as the Kshatrapa (Satrap) period, when the suzerainty of the Parthian empire was gradually replaced by the Sakas. The Indo-Scythian rulers of this time included Nahapana, Chashtana, Jayadaman and Rudradaman. Over time the rulers assumed Hindu names.^[17] Also, the Ranas of Udaipur, the heads of the Sisodia clan of the Rajputs are believed to have originally been Iranians who came to India towards the end of sixth century CE. The Pallavas (Sanskrit for Pahlavas) are also believed to have originated from Iran. Pulakesin II, the ruler of Badami in known to have sent an embassy to Khosrau II (Parviz) in 625 CE.^[18]

The Sassanian period in Persia (226-651 CE) coincided with the Gupta period (308-651 CE) in India. The Sassanian monarchs maintained relations with the Gupta empire which was based in Pataliputra. Pulakesin, the ruler of the Deccan, was known in Persia, and there were frequent embassies between Persia and India. Trade flourished as Persian merchants acted as intermediaries in the flow of goods between India and Europe. One of the murals in the Ajanta caves near Mumbai depicts a Hindu king with men in Sassanian dress.^[19] In the 6th century, sandalwood, magenta, shells, corals, pearls, gold and silver are said to have been traded between India and Persia.^[20] Bam, in south-east Iran, was a major commercial and trading town on the famous Spice Road, a major tributary of the Silk Road, that connected trade routes from India through Iran to Central Asia and China.

Kushana and Gandhara art consisted of Parthian and east Iranian elements. Sassanian motifs are also visible in Gupta art. On the other side, the Indian peacock, dragons, cocks and spiral creepers adorn Sassanian monuments.^[21] The tiles of the Harvan monastery near Srinagar have Sassanian-influenced decorations, signifying the extent of Sassanid influence in the Kashmir valley.^[22]

According to the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi (11th century CE), the 5th century Sassanian king Bahram V requested Indian king Shangol to select 12,000 "Gypsies", or Indian musicians, and introduced them to Persia. These Gypsies are believed to be the ancestors of the Persian Gypsies. They propagated Indian music and dancing in Persia, and may have travelled further west to Europe in the next four to five hundred years. It is possible that these "Gypsies" are the ancestors of the modern Roma people in Europe. It is also believed that Bahram visited India in the 5th century CE. Persian poet Hakim Nizami Ganjavi has alluded to the Indian wife of king Behram in his famous work Haft Paikar (seven figures) indicating instances of inter-marriage.^[23]

During the reign of the Sassanian king Khosrau (531-579 CE), the game of chess (Chaturanga in India) is believed to have been introduced to Persia (where it was known as Shatranj).^[24] Later, when Persia was conquered by the Arabs, the game quickly spread all over the middle east and then to Europe. The original game was played on 64 squares (astapada) with a king piece and pieces of four other types, corresponding to the corps of the ancient Indian armies – an elephant (rook), a horse (knight), a chariot or ship and four footmen (pawns).^[25] Under Khosrau, Jundishpur was developed as a leading center of Persian medicine, in which the Indian Ayurvedic system was syncretized with the Greek system propagated there by the Nestorian Christians. Burzuya, the physician to Khosrau, was sent to India to bring back works on medicine and searched for the so-called "elixir of life". Burzuya on his return is said to have brought stories of the Panchatantra with him.^[26] The Panchatantra is an ancient collection of Indian fables, and it was translated from Sanskrit to Pahlavi by Burzuya, who called it Kalila-va-Demna. Also in the field of medicine, the Charaka Samhita, the famous Indian medical text by the physician Charaka was translated to Persian and then to Arabic in the 7th century. In the field of astronomy, an early Pahlavi book Zik-i-Shatro Ayar, which was an astronomical work based on Indian elements was translated into Arabic by Al-Tamimi.^[27]

According to the Christian topography Cosmos Indicopleustes of the 6th century, there were churches in Kerala and Ceylon in the hands of Persian priests, supervised by a Persian bishop at Kalliana (perhaps modern Cochin). Indian Christians had embraced the Nestorianism, which was then widespread in Persia. The Nestorians were active missionaries and their monks had crossed Central Asia to found churches in China. These missionaries following in the wake of Persian merchants are believed to be chiefly responsible for establishing a Christian community in south India.^[28]

[edit] Buddhist influence in Pre-Islamic Persia

Buddhism became widespread in Persia within a few hundred years of its emergence in India. The Kushana king Kanishka in northwest India, became a great patron of Buddhist faith. Kanishka patronized the Gandhara school of Greco-Buddhist art, which introduced Greek and Persian elements into Buddhist iconography. Buddhism became the religion of the east Iranian province of Khorasan through the Kushana emperors. The legendary biography of the Buddha in Sanskrit – the Buddha Charita – composed by Ashva Ghosh - was translated into Khotanese and then into Sogdian and Parthian, followed by Pahlavi, and then Arabic and other languages. In Iran, the story of Ibrahim ibn Adham, the prince who abandoned his kingdom to lead a religious life, is modelled on that of the Buddha.^[29]

In Central Asia there was a mixture of languages, religions, and cultures, and, as Buddhism interacted with these various traditions, it changed and developed. Shamanism, Zoroastrianism, Nestorian Christianity, and later Islam to a certain extant coexisted with Buddhism. For example, some of the Mahayana bodhisattvas, such as Amitabha, may have been inspired, in part, by Zoroastrianism. There is also evidence of some degree of syncretism between Buddhism and Manichaeism, an Iranian dualistic religion that was founded in the 3rd century CE. Zoroastrianism and Buddhism also came in close contact in northwest India.^[30]

Buddhist architecture and imagery probably influenced and was influenced by its Persian counterpart, as Buddhism spread in Persia.^[31] The blue of turquoise from Khorasan became the symbol of the 'mind by nature luminous' (cittam prakriti-prabhasvaram), and the spires of Buddhist monasteries were made of turquoise, as blue was the colour of meditation. The shades of blue porcelain created by the Buddhists of East Asia signified the subtle planes of contemplation. This tradition was adopted centuries later by the blue mosques of Persia.^[32] The Jandial temple near Taxila was probably Zoroastrian.^[33]

Paintings on the walls of the Alchi monastery in Ladakh (northern Kashmir) reproduced in detail Sassanian motifs on textiles. They can be seen in round medallions with mythical animals. The most ancient stringed instrument from Persia – a red-sandalwood five-stringed veena – has been preserved at the Todaiji monastery in Nara, Japan since the 8th century. It is decorated with a Persian motif in mother-of-pearl inlay and represents a cultural exchange between the Persian and the Buddhist world.

The Tibetan histories of medicine relate that Jivaka, the physician to Lord Buddha was born as the son of King Bimbisara. The legend goes that as a child he once he saw a group of white-clad men and asked his father who they were. The king replied, "They are doctors and they protect people from diseases". He then wished to become a doctor and he asked his father for permission. King Bimbisara sent him to Taxila. These white-clad men were Iranians, who were famous physicians as attested by Sanskrit texts.^[34]

Buddhist literature also influenced early Persian compositions. Early Persian poetry created abstract mental forms recalling the grace of Buddhist statues. Up to the 11th century, Persian poetry came from Khorasan, Sogdiana and adjacent areas, which were once steeped in Buddhism. The metaphor of Bot (Buddha) was constant and exclusive in early Persian poetry. The facial type of bot-e-mahruy ("moon-faced statue") was the norm in Persian paintings and poetry.^[35] The Parthians are said to have translated Sanskrit texts into Chinese. An Shih-Kao was a Parthian prince who became a Buddhist monk. He came to China in 148 CE and translated 95 Sanskrit works on Buddhism into Chinese. 55 of them are still available in Chinese Tripitaka. Another Parthian prince An Huen translated two Sanskrit works into Chinese in 181 CE.^[36]

[edit] Islamic Persia and India

[edit] Islamic conquest of Persia and Pre-Sultanate Period in India

In the 7th century, after the Persians lost the battle of al-Qādisiyyah in 637 CE to the Islamic Arab armies, the Sassanian dynasty came to an end. Following this, a large community Zoroastrians migrated to India through the Strait of Hormuz. In 712 CE, the Arabs under the command of Muhammad bin Qasim also invaded Sind from the west.

After Islam took over Persia, Zoroastrianism practically disappeared from the country. The followers of the religion fled Persia and took refuge in western India. They were the ancestors of today's Parsees or Parsis in India. The Parsis began arriving in India from around 636 CE. Their first permanent settlements were at Sanjan, 100 miles north of Bombay. They are believed to have built a big fire temple at Sanjan in 790 CE with the fire they had brought from Iran with them.^[37] According to the Parsees legend, a band of refugees settled first at Diu in Saurashtra and then at Thane near Bombay in the early 8th century.^[38] Their connection with their co-religionists in Iran seems to have been almost totally broken until later in the 15th century. Even today, Parsis maintain a cultural relationship with Iran, travelling to the cities of Tehran, Yazd and Kerman in Iran for pilgrimage. In the modern era, the Parsi community have contributed significantly to India (and Pakistan) in the areas of politics, industry, science, and culture. Prominent Indian Parsis include Dadabhai Naoroji (three times president of Indian National Congress), Field Marshall Sam Manekshaw, nuclear energy scientist Homi Bhabha, industrialist JRD Tata and the Tata family, literary figures like Bapsi Sidhwa (in Pakistan) and others. The famous Queen rock star Freddie Mercury was an Indian Parsi born in Zanzibar.

The century following the Arab conquest of Sind was one in which Hindu culture influenced Arab Islamic and Persian Islamic culture. The scientific study of astronomy in Islam commenced under the influence of an Indian work, Siddhanta, which was brought to Baghdad by 771 through translations.^[39] In about 800 CE, the Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhatta's treatise Aryabhatiya was translated into Arabic under the title Zij-al-Arjabhar. Before that, in 772 CE, Brahmagupta Brahmasphuta-Siddhanta and the Khandakhadyaka, were taken to Baghdad and translated into Arabic. The knowledge of Hindu numerals and the decimal place value system reached the Arabs along with other Indian mathematical-astronomical works rendered into Arabic in the 8th and 9th century, giving rise to the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.^[40] In the 10th century AD, a Persian pharmacologist Abu Mansur Muwaffaq ibn Ali al Harawi of Herat wrote Kitab’l Abniya an Haq’iq’l Adwiya (book of Foundations of the True Properties of Remedies). Believed to be the oldest prose work in modern Persian, the book utilized material from Indian sources among others.^[41]

The Sh'ubia movement in Iran preserved Iranian non-Arab traditions and also used their knowledge to translate Sanskrit works on mathematics, astronomy, medicine and other sciences into Arabic. They used their knowledge of Sanskrit grammar to systematize Arabic grammar. The Sahihs of al-Bukhari and the Sunan of al-Tirmidhi are collections of the Hadith, which in their Iranian version seems to have been influenced by Buddhist works. The Hadith begins with “Thus have I heard”, which is also the usual beginning of Buddhist scriptures (evam maya srutam). The term srutam implies historic sanctity and glory, as does the hadith, which for Muslims is on par with the Quran.^[42]

[edit] Islamic Sultanate dynasties in India

In the 11th century, Islam came to India from Persia through the conquest by Mahmud of Ghazni. The subsequent form of Islam that reached India had a rich Persian influence. The art and architecture of Iran came to be associated with Islam, and Islam became the common element that linked Persian and Indian elites. Ghaznavi brought along a number of poets, artisans and religious persons who settled down in India. Lahore (now in Pakistan) in the Punjab became an important centre of Persian literature, art and mysticism. Between 1206 CE and 1687 CE Muslim dynasties appeared in different parts of India. During this period, Turks, Tartars and some Arabs who had imbibed Iranian influence came to India. During the rule of the Khilji dynasty (14th century) several Persian scholars from Tabriz and Isfahan visited the royal courts in India.^[43]

During the 11th century CE, Al-Biruni, believed to be a Shia Muslim of Iranian origin born in Khwarizm in northern Iran, visited India during the Ghaznavi period. He wrote his famous Kitab-ul-Hind in Arabic, which involved a detailed study of Indian customs, traditions and the Indian way of life. Earlier, many Indian works on astronomy, mathematics and medicine had been translated into Arabic during the early Abbasid period, and Al-Biruni, who was also very interested in astronomy and mathematics, refers to some of these texts. Biruni was a prolific writer, and besides his mother tongue, Khwarizmi (an Iranian dialect of the north with Turkish influence), Persian and Arabic, he also knew Hebrew, Syriac and Sanskrit.^[44] He studied Sanskrit manuscripts to check earlier Arabic writings on India. Al Biruni composed about 20 books on India – both originals and translations, and a great number of legends based on the folklore of ancient Persia and India. He developed a special interest in the Samkhya Yoga traditions of Indian philosophy and the Bhagavad Gita. He was possibly the first foreign scholar to have seriously studied the Puranas, specially the Vishnu Dharma.^[45] Biruni also rendered the al-Majest of Ptolemy and Geometry of Euclid into Sanskrit.^[46]

The earliest evidence of Arabic/Persian influence on Indian astronomy is of the second half of the fourteenth century. Mahendra Suri, a court astronomer of the Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388), composed in 1370 a treatise entitled Yantraraja. Based on Persian knowledge, it described the construction and use of the astrolabe, an instrument developed by Arab astronomers. Another Indian astronomer who made use of Arabic/Persian knowledge was Kamalakara, who wrote a treatise on astronomy called Siddhanta-tatva-viveka. Later it was Sawai Jai Singh II who showed the greatest interest in Arabic/Persian astronomy.^[47]

During this period several Hindu and Jain religious and philosophical texts from Sanskrit and Prakrit were translated into Persian. These include the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Nalopakhyana (Nala and Damayanti), Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Skanda Purana, Vayu Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Harivamsa, Atharva Veda, Yoga Vashishtha, Sankara Bhasya, Atma Vilasa, Amrita Kunda, Prabodhacandrodaya and Vraja Mahatmya.^[48]

[edit] Mughal-Safavid Period

In the 16th century, Iran witnessed the rise of the Safavid dynasty after a period of upheaval and India saw the rise of the Mughal Empire. India and Iran became great powers under these two dynasties. The intercourse between India and Iran was many-faceted, covering politics, diplomacy, culture, literature, trade, and religion. The language of the Mughal court was Persian. Mughal patronage of culture constantly attracted Persian scholars; talented Persians were absorbed in the expanding services of the Mughal empire.

The ties between the Safavids and the Mughals were marked by the alliance of Shah Ismail I with Babur and the friendship of Shah Tahmasp I and Humayun. The Safavids established Shia Islam as the state religion in Iran.^[49] Babur, who was originally a Timurid from the Uzbek region of Samarkand received help from the Ismail I and established himself first in Kabul and then in Delhi and Agra.^[50] Ismail also returned to Babur the latter's sister Khanzada Begum, who had been recovered by the Persians from Uzbeks at Merv. It is believed that during his occupation of Samarkand (1511-1512), Babur struck coins bearing Shia legends and the name "Shah Ismail Safavi". Babur was also an accomplished Persian poet and was a patron of Persian poetry. He invited Khwand Amir, a famous historian from Herat to join his court. He also selected Bairam Beg, a Shia, to be a constant companion to his son Humayun.^[51]

Humayun, the son of Babur, after being defeated by the Afghan Sher Shah Suri, fled to Iran and was only able to return to India with the military help of the Iranian Safavid king Tahmasp I. On his way back, Humayun took over Kandahar from Mirza Kamran (his half-brother) with Persian help in 1545, but handed it over to the Persians as agreed, only to retake it later (the Persians retook Kandahar soon after his death in 1556). He then went on to take over Kabul. Humayun visited several other places including Sistan, Herat, Jam, Mashhad, Qazvin, Tabriz and Ardabil during his stay in Persia. There is an inscription of Humayun at Turbat-I-Jam dating back to 1544, wherein he alludes to himself as an "empty handed wanderer".^[52] During his stay in Persia, Humayun had to accede to the demand of Shah Tahmasp of Persia to explicitly accept the Shia faith. On his return from Persia, he is believed to have reverted to being a Sunni.

(more to come)

[edit] Current relations

[edit] Economic relations

Main article: Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline

[edit] India's nuclear vote against Iran

Regarding Iran's nuclear situation in the UN, India must sooner or later come to a strategic final decision. On the one hand, Iran and India are natural allies against a potential confrontation with Pakistan. The Pakistan-Iran split surfaced during Pakistan's fullfledged support of the Taliban in Afghanistan. [1] And despite the sale of centrifuges to Iran by A.Q. Khan, Pakistan denies it had anything to do with the technology transfer, implying that Khan acted alone, not to mention that the sale in no way signifies any strategic pact between the two. During a presidential visit by Iran to India, a report surfaced in which India was to gain access to Iranian airfileds, should there be a breakout of tensions against Pakistan.[2]

Yet India managed to vote against Iran in the IAEA in 2005, which took Iran's government by surprise. A "hurt" Ali Larijani was reported as saying: "India was our friend". [3]

As the standoff continues to develop, columnists such as Joe Hirsch believe that unlike Russia and China, "India could indeed be bought off by US incentives like the nuclear deal, because its shortsighted leaders don't recognize that they are committing national suicide by entering into this nuclear deal with the US." (Jorge Hirsch, interview April 12, 2006 [4]) Stephen Rademaker also acknowledged that India's votes against Iran at the International Atomic Energy Agency were "coerced":^[53]

"The best illustration of this is the two votes India cast against Iran at the IAEA. I am the first person to admit that the votes were coerced."

However, Washington considers support from India, which is on the 35-member board of governors at the IAEA, crucial in getting a sizeable majority for its proposal to refer the matter to the Security Council for positive punitive action against Iran. Greg Schulte, US ambassador to the IAEA, said India's voice will carry particular weight...I hope India joins us in making clear our collective concerns about Iran's nuclear program . Schulte did not deny that the Indo-US nuclear deal was conditional to India supporting the US on the Iran issue. Some officials in India are unhappy about the deal and it's effect on relations with Iran. Appraising of the situation vis-a-vis Iran, a senior U.S. official told the New York Times that The Indians are emerging from their nonaligned status and becoming a global power, and they have to begin to think about their responsibilities. They have to make a basic choice.[5].

The Socialist left parties who were previously opposed to the nuclear deal and the opposition to Iran's nuclear programme that it entails have changed their position and compromised with the government regarding this position. While the left remains hawkish about their reservations concerning the deal, the government has made an effort to address their concerns[6]. Many strategists also say that it is in India's best interests to support the United States more, on account of the fact that India's rival, Pakistan is presently an ally of the US "only by convenience", as well as technological benefits. The Bush administration, however, recognized India's interests with Iran and has tempered its position, stating that India can "go ahead with a pipeline deal involving Iran and Pakistan. Our beef with Iran is not the pipeline."[7]

[edit] References

1. ^ http://www.indianembassy-tehran.com/india-iran-links.html
2. ^ http://www.indianembassy-tehran.com/india-iran-links.html
3. ^ http://www.indianembassy-tehran.com/india-iran-links.html
4. ^ http://www.indianembassy-tehran.com/india-iran-links.html
5. ^ ‘Iran and India: Age old Friendship’ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October-December 1994, p 69.
6. ^ ‘The Discovery of India’ by Jawaharlal Nehru, Oxford University Press 1992, p 147.
7. ^ ‘Indo-Iranian Relations’ by Dr. Tara Chand, p 4
8. ^ ‘Iran and India: Age old Friendship’ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October-December 1994
9. ^ ‘Iran and India: Age old Friendship’ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October-December 1994
10. ^ ‘The Wonder that was India’ by A L Basham, p 196
11. ^ ‘The Wonder that was India’ by A L Basham, p 222
12. ^ ‘The Wonder that was India’ by A L Basham, p 196
13. ^ The Wonder that was India’ by A L Basham, p 49
14. ^ ‘Iran and India: Age old Friendship’, paper by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October-December 1994, p 69
15. ^ ‘Discovery of India’ by Jawaharlal Nehru, Oxford University Press, 1992, p148.
16. ^ Iran and Gujarat – Political and Cultural Relations’ paper by C.R. Naik.
17. ^ Iran and Gujarat – Political and Cultural Relations’ paper by C.R. Naik.
18. ^ ` The History of the Parsees of India’ paper by P.P. Balsara
19. ^ ‘Iran and India: Age old Friendship’ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October-December 1994, p 71.
20. ^ ‘Iran and India: Age old Friendship’ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October-December 1994, p 72
21. ^ ‘Indo-Iranian relations’ by Dr. Tara Chand, p 10.
22. ^ ‘Some Iranian Sufi traditions & their impact on the evolution of Indo-Muslim culture’, paper by Mohd Ishaq Khan.
23. ^ ‘Iran and India: Age old Friendship’ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October-December 1994, p 71.
24. ^ ‘Iran and India: Age old Friendship’ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October-December 1994, p 72.
25. ^ 'The Wonder that was India' by A L Basham, 1967, p 210
26. ^ Indo-Iranian Relations’ by Dr. Tara Chand, p 5
27. ^ ‘A Concise History of Science in India’, edited by D.M. Bose, INSA Publications, 1989, p 48.
28. ^ ‘The wonder that was India’, by A.L. Basham, 1967, p 345.
29. ^ ‘Indo-Iranian Relations’ by Dr. Tara Chand, p 5.
30. ^ The Wonder that was India’ by A L Basham, 1967, p 276
31. ^ ‘India and Iran: A Dialogue’, paper by Prof. Lokesh Chandra.
32. ^ ‘India and Iran: A Dialogue’, paper by Prof. Lokesh Chandra.
33. ^ ‘The Wonder that was India’ by A L Basham, 1967, p 357
34. ^ ‘India and Iran: A Dialogue’, paper by Prof. Lokesh Chandra
35. ^ ‘India and Iran: A Dialogue’, paper by Prof. Lokesh Chandra
36. ^ ‘India and Iran: A Dialogue’, paper by Prof. Lokesh Chandra
37. ^ `The History of Parsees of India’ paper by P.P. Balsara
38. ^ `The History of Parsees of India’ paper by P.P. Balsara
39. ^ ‘A Concise History of Science in India’, edited by D.M. Bose, INSA Publications, 1989, p 47
40. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica
41. ^ ‘A Concise History of Science in India’, edited by D.M. Bose, INSA Publications, 1989, p 47
42. ^ ‘India and Iran: A Dialogue’, paper by Prof. Lokesh Chandra
43. ^ ‘Iran and India: Age old Friendship’ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October-December 1994, p 75
44. ^ ‘India by Al-Biruni’, edited by Qeyamuddin Ahmad, NBT Publication, 1995, p xvii
45. ^ ‘A Concise History of Science in India’, edited by D.M. Bose, INSA Publications, 1989, p 49
46. ^ ‘Hindu-Muslim Cultural Relations’ by F. Mujtabai, NBB publication 1978, p 68 – 90
47. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica
48. ^ ‘Hindu-Muslim Cultural Relations’ by F. Mujtabai, NBB publication 1978, p 65
49. ^ ‘Indo-Persian Relations’ by Riazul Islam, Iranian Culture Foundation, 1970, pg 5, 185
50. ^ ‘Iran and India: Age old Friendship’ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October-December 1994, p 77
51. ^ ‘Indo-Persian Relations’ by Riazul Islam, Iranian Culture Foundation, 1970, pg 5, 194
52. ^ ‘Indo-Persian Relations’ by Riazul Islam, Iranian Culture Foundation, 1970, pg 40
53. ^ http://www.payvand.com/news/07/feb/1214.html

[edit] Further reading

• Clawson, Patrick. Eternal Iran. ISBN 1-4039-6276-6. 2005. MacMillan.
• G.L. Tikku, Persian poetry in Kashmir, 1971, ISBN 0-520-09312-7
• Section on Persian literature in India: Jan Rypka, History of Iranian Literature. Reidel Publishing Company. ASIN B-000-6BXVT-K

[edit] See also

• Foreign Relations of Iran
• Foreign relations of India
• India-Israel relations
• Iran-Pakistan relations
• Indo-Pakistani relations
• Sino-Indian relations
• Iran-China relations
• Ancient India and Central Asia

[edit] Links

• Iran-India Culture House - New Delhi
• India-Iran Relations: A farewell to the gas pipeline?
• Why India-Iran relations are growing
• US concerns not to sway India-Iran relations
• India-Iran Relations Cannot Be Hostage To US